Bird richness in managed systems
We recorded 89 bird species, 68% of the 130 species that have been reported for the Zapotitlán Salinas Valley. The species recorded belong to 61 genera, 26 families and 11 orders: highlighting the Parulidae (13 species), Tyrannidae (12 species), and Trochilidae, Troglodytidae and Passerellidae (with 7 species each). Twenty-one species (23%) have some degree of endemism, seven being strictly endemic to Mexico, eleven semi-endemic and three quasi-endemics (see Additional file 1).
Four species are under some protection category of the NOM-059; three are subject to special protection (Parabuteo unicinctus (Temminck, 1824); Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771; Aimophila notosticta (P. L. Sclater & Salvin, 1868)) and one is considered threatened (Geothlypis tolmiei (J. K. Townsend, 1839)). In total, 59 species are resident and 30 migratory; 43 are insectivorous, 14 omnivorous, 13 granivorous, 7 nectarivores, 7 carnivorous and 5 frugivorous.
Nearly 66% of the registered species are resident, they have a wide distribution within the locality, are generalist species and are associated with areas of higher temperature and lower humidity, compared to the migratory species that reach Zapotitlán Salinas, like the clay-colored finch, the peregrine falcon or the ruby-throated hummingbird [18, 49, 50].
A large percentage of the migratory species registered for the locality (62%) were observed during the sampling. These species are associated to areas with higher humidity conditions in the locality, like riparian zones of the Salado river, and their distribution is smaller [18, 49].
Regarding the endemic species occurring in the Zapotitlán Salinas Valley, all of them were recorded during the sampling, these have a wide distribution within the locality [50].
The species that were not registered are those associated with riparian areas and temporary and permanent rivers and streams; also, those found in restricted areas of the locality, specifically, in the riparian mesquite areas [49]. In addition to the species with restricted distribution, it is likely that, even if the sampling effort can be considered robust, some species considered rare or not abundant in the area were not detected in samples.
Although the resident species occurring in the sampled plots move throughout the Zapotitlán Valley, the presence of a high percentage of migratory species indicates that the area with agroforestry management systems may represent spaces of important resources seasonally used, even when the humidity conditions are less favorable than in other areas.
Although the agroforestry practices established in the sampling plots are not currently subject to intense management, their presence and distribution within the field and their composition may be defining the richness of the birdlife. It has been described that agroforestry systems can provide important resources for migratory birds, such as shelter, food and facilitate the movement between patches [51].
According to Zuria and Gates [52], the size and complexity of agroforestry practices of the “land margin”, such as living fences, windbreak barriers, terraces or hedges; as well as its proximity with patches or remnants of the original vegetation, determine the richness and composition of the bird community, as well as the characteristics that appear in the sampled sites and their associated agroforestry practices in Zapotitlán Salinas.
Likewise, the presence and abundance of mesquite (Prosopis laevigata (Willd.) M.C. Johnst., Fabaceae) is positively related to the richness of birds, due to the multiple resources offered by this species. Zuria and Gates [52] documented the presence of 61 species of birds, 36 resident and 24 migratory in agricultural plots within agroforestry practices called “land margin” in an arid area of Guanajuato.
In addition, the sites have a high abundance of mesquite, but unlike the study of Zuria and Gates, in Zapotitlán Salinas, besides mesquite, other plant species of importance for birdlife were recorded, including several species of columnar cacti (Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart. Ex Pfeiff.) Console., Cactaceae; Stenocereus stellatus (Pfeiff.) Riccob., Cactaceae), agaves (Agave salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dyck, Asparagaceae; Agave marmorata Roezl, Asparagaceae), legume (Vachellia constricta (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger, Fabaceae; Prosopis laevigata), Bursera trees (Bursera aptera Ramirez, Burseraceae; Bursera submoniliformis Engl, Burseraceae) and bushes (Jatropha neopauciflora Pax, Euphorbiaceae, Cnidoscolus sp., Euphorbiaceae), among others.
What people know about birds
Local people of Zapotitlán Salinas continually interact with birds of their locality; in homegardens, in the squares and streets of the town, as well as in the cultivated and fallow agricultural areas, and in the secondary and primary forest areas. According to the daily life and productive activities that each villager performs, these interactions may differ in diversity, and the groups of birds that are more commonly used and managed. From these interactions, the local people of Zapotitlán interviewed recognized 62 morphospecies occurring in their territory, which belong to 26 families and 11 orders. The difference with respect the general inventory generated during the research can be explained because for local people several species of the same order or genus are not differentiated. Most birds have a local name, which may be related to bird characteristics like color and shape of the feathers, their song, movement, feeding habits, specific behaviors (during foraging or courtship, for example) among other ecological habits [53, 54]. Villagers assign 50 local names to the 62 recognized morphospecies, because some species have different names, such as Pyrocephalus rubinus (Boddaert, 1783), which is known as "rayito”, or "San Gabrielito". Contrarily, several species of the same genus have the same name, such as Catherpes mexicanus (Swainson, 1829), Troglodytes aedon Vieillot, 1809 and Thryomanes bewickii (Audubon, 1827), which are all called "saltapared". People also recognize some species as varieties, such as orioles, three types of which are identified: “common oriole” (Icterus wagleri P. L. Sclater, 1857), “yellow oriole” (Icterus pustulatus (Wagler, 1829)) and “fine or Spanish oriole” (Icterus cucullatus Swainson, 1827) (see Additional file 2).
The recognized species are mostly residents and considered common in the locality, unlike most of the non-annealed species, which have a smaller distribution, associated with areas of higher humidity and lower temperature, that are considered rare or less abundant, like the migratory chipe Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus, 1766), or the few abundant Sporophila torqueola (Bonaparte, 1850).
From the free listing of birds and the calculated cognitive salience index, six of the total birds mentioned are outstanding: Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus, 1758) (0.33), Zenaida asiatica (Linnaeus, 1758) (0.24), Haemorhous mexicanus (P. L. Statius Müller, 1776) (0.19), Icterus sp. (0.15), Columbina inca (Lesson, 1847) (0.12) and Toxostoma curvirostre (Swainson, 1827) (0.11). The six species highlighted according to the order and frequency of mention are valued in several aspects, their use is an important aspect, since the six species are used as ornamental birds. Columbina inca and Zenaida asiatica are consumed as food, but also for being interpreted as signs, because Toxostoma curvirostre is considered a bird predictor. It is important to highlight that Mimus polyglottos was mentioned by all the interviewees and the highest index of valuation, it is important for its use, symbolic and aesthetic reasons.
Interactions shaped by uses, beliefs, and rituals
The environmental interactions between people and birds of Zapotitlán Salinas respond to various motivations. Those more intense are utilitarian, while other less obvious are those related to the awareness of risk and conservation of biodiversity, as well as to the aesthetic appreciation and interactions shaped by the worldview of the population and interpreted from the knowledge they possess.
Eighteen species and the Trochilidae were registered with use, under three categories: food (four species), medicinal (four species and one family) and use for ornament (13 species). These species belong to ten families and six orders, within the Trochilidae there is no selection by species for use due to the difficulty of selecting the individual when hunting (Table 2).
Table 2 Uses of the birds in Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla, Mexico. ECP: Environmental and Climatic Changes Predictors
Local Name
|
Use
|
Description
|
Tortolita (Columbina inca)
|
Food
|
It is consumed roasted or "barbecue" type, it can be accompanied with rice.
|
Torito (Columbina passerina)
|
Food
|
It is consumed roasted
|
Carpintero (Melanerpes hypopolius)
|
Food
|
Its consumption is less common, it is also prepared roasted
|
Paloma tehuacanera, Torcasa (Zenaida asiatica)
|
Food
|
It is consumed roasted
|
Zopilotes (Coragyps atratus, Cathartes aura)
|
Medicinal
|
Used to cure rabies, through the use of their blood / Used as a cancer treatment, the meat is consumed in a soup.
|
Cacalote (Corvus corax)
|
Medicinal
|
Used to cure rabies and to treat “mishcahue”.
It is prepared boiled together with palo blanco and casahuate (Ipomoea sp.).
|
Correcaminos (Geococcyx velox)
|
Medicinal
|
Used to treat epileptic seizures, heart diseases and as a cancer treatment. The meat is consumed.
|
Chuparosas, Chupamirtos (Trochilidae)
|
Medicinal
|
1. Used to treat “alferecia” and “tiricia”. It is plucked and boiled, the broth is consumed, blood is also used, and some consume the meat.
2. Used to treat heart diseases. The whole bird is used and placed as a plasto in the children's chest.
The blood and boiled meat of the animal is ingested.
The animal is placed in alcohol and taken in small doses or spread. In the case of children, it is ingested prepared in tea.
3. Also used to treat "mischcahue". The animal is put in a jar with basil, ruda or other air plants and the liquid is ingested.
|
Tortolita (Columbina inca)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for its song.
|
Torito (Columbina passerina)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for its song.
|
Gorrión rojo (Haemorhous mexicanus)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for the color of its plumage and its song.
|
Calandrias (Icterus cucullatus, Icterus pustulatus)
|
Ornament
|
Both species are appreciated for the color of their plumage.
|
Chape (Mimus polyglottos)
|
Ornament
|
The cenzontle is appreciated as an ornamental bird for its many songs and ability to learn and imitate.
|
Bionches (Pheucticus chrysopeplus, Pheucticus melanocephalus)
|
Ornament
|
Both species are appreciated for the color of their plumage.
|
Dominico (Spinus psaltria)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for the color of its plumage.
|
Cuicuite (Toxostoma curvirostre)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for its song.
|
Primavera (Turdus migratorius)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for its singing and the color of its plumage.
|
Paloma tehuacanera, Torcasa (Zenaida asiatica)
|
Ornament
|
It is appreciated for its singing and the color of its plumage.
|
Three species of columbiforms (Columbina inca, Columbina passerina (Linnaeus, 1758) and Zenaida asiatica) were mentioned as the most common birds for consumption (Fig. 3), in addition to a species of woodpecker (Melanerpes hypopolius (Wagler, 1829)), which was mentioned less frequently, due to the difficulty of catching it.
For a medicinal use, the two species of vulture of the locality (Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793), Cathartes aura (Linnaeus, 1758)), the crow (Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758), the roadrunner (Geococcyx velox (Wagner, 1836)) and several species of hummingbirds (Trochilidae) are used. The diseases that are treated with these species are mainly cardiac illnesses, epilepsy, and rabies, these birds are also used to treat conditions and discomforts such as “tirisia”, “alferecia” and “mishcahue”, which are cultural diseases common in Zapotitlán Salinas. “Alferecia” is a condition of the children manifesting bruising of nails, lips and eyelids, as well as seizures. “Mishcahue” is the upset that women feel after labor if they do not meet the recommended forty days of resting, while “tirisia” is a condition whose symptoms are associated with lack of appetite, reluctance and paleness, it usually occurs in people who suffer from sadness and disappointment [55].
Thirteen species were recorded with ornamental use: mainly the “chape” (Mimus polyglottos), the “tehuacanera dove” (Zenaida asiatica), the tortolita (Columbina inca), the “torito” (Columbina passerina), the sparrow (Haemorhous mexicanus), two species of orioles (Icterus cucullatus, Icterus pustulatus), two species of “bionches” (Pheucticus chrysopeplus (Vigors, 1832), Pheucticus melanocephalus (Swainson, 1827)), “cuicuite” (Toxostoma curvirostre) and “dominico” (Spinus psaltria (Say, 1822)). Other species that come to be kept at home, but less frequently, are the nightingale (Phainopepla nitens (Swainson, 1838)) and “primavera” (Turdus migratorius Linnaeus, 1766).
Edible and medicinal uses of birds have declined, mainly because, unlike the past, residents can now access to other resources and services, such as commercial meat and a nearby health service. Currently, food use is linked to childhood activities, while medicinal use is even more restricted to those who have the knowledge, usually to attend emergencies or as an alternative treatment to the one they receive from the physician.
While the maintenance of local ornamental birds is a practice, which has decreased but persists, since it is considered that “birds bring joy to the house” and various interactions with them are established.
“The cenzontle, the sparrow, that one also sings a lot, he learns, he also learns if you teach him. The sparrow, the bionche, they do learn, usually the people have sparrows, almost in the house they have the sparrow, the cenzontle; they are attractive because the sing”
-Woman, 84 years.
Other forms of interactions with birds were recorded in the site studied, linked to beliefs, rites and rituals and to the reading or predicting environmental events. The use as amulet was registered in a family, which represents an element of great value for the person who carries it and transmits and secures a good. We recorded six species as omens, which are signs of warning of a future event. The category of climatic and environmental changes predictors (ECP nine species), is understood as the reading and interpretation of a signal expressed from an unusual song or activity of the bird, which indicates a change in the weather or a specific climatic event and finally, the ritual category (a species and a family) is registered, in which a bird is used as an element associated with an event of ritual characteristics (Table 3).
Table 3 Bird species with categories linked to beliefs, myths, rites, rituals in Zapotitlán Salinas
Local Name
|
Category
|
Description
|
Chuparosas, Chupamirtos (Trochilidae)
|
Amulet
|
It is used as an amulet for good luck. It is captured and dried to be placed on the door of the home or loaded in the bag.
|
Zopilotes (Cathartes aura, Coragyps atratus)
|
Omen
|
Announces bad luck when it crosses the person's path.
|
Correcaminos (Geococcyx velox)
|
Omen
|
Announces bad luck when it crosses the person's path.
|
Tecolote (Glaucidium brasilianum)
|
Omen
|
Announces the death of a relative by singing at night, insistently, on the side of the house.
|
Rayito, Pájaro del rayo, San Gabrielito (Pyrocephalus rubinus)
|
Omen
|
Announces good luck when the person sees one.
|
Cuicuite (Toxostoma curvirostre)
|
Omen
|
Announces a visit from a family member when it sings insistently near the house.
|
Totopito con chilaquil (Aegolius acadicus)
|
ECP
|
He announces cold or rain with his insistent song.
|
Correcaminos (Geococcyx velox)
|
ECP
|
It announces rain and strong wind with its song, which is rare because it is a bird that does not sing frequently.
Announces heat through a different song, which is interpreted as cheerful.
|
Tecolote (Glaucidium brasilianum)
|
ECP
|
Announces the beginning of the rainy season, or enough rain during the season with its song during the early morning.
|
Golondrina (Stelgidopteryx serripennis, Hirundo rustica)
|
ECP
|
It indicates nearby rain when rising at high altitude during its flight in open places.
|
Saltapared (Catherpes mexicanus, Troglodytes aedon, Thryomanes bewickii)
|
ECP
|
Announces the rain with his insistent song.
|
Lechuza (Tyto alba)
|
ECP
|
Announces the cold with his song.
|
Cacalote (Corvus corax)
|
Ritual
|
Blood is used as an element in a ritual against witchcraft.
|
Chuparosas, Chupamirtos (Trochilidae)
|
Ritual
|
It is used as an element to make clean against “mal de ojo” or “aire”
|
The Trochilidae is used as amulet, no any particular species of hummingbird is preferred, their capture is carried out opportunistically or casually, and the hummingbird captured can be kept for later use as amulet or medicine.
Used for omen we recorded the two species of vultures, the roadrunner, the “tecolote” (Glaucidium brasilianum (Gmelin, 1788)), the “rayito”, and the “cuicuite” (Fig. 4). These are divided between those that presage or announce good luck or an event considered good and those that presage bad luck or notify about an event considered bad.
Nine species were recorded as predictors of climatic and environmental changes: the “totopito con chilaquil” (Aegolius acadicus (Gmelin, 1788)), the roadrunner, the “tecolote”, two species of swallows (Hirundo rustica Linnaeus, 1758; Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Audubon, 1838)), three species recognized as “saltapared” (Catherpes mexicanus (Swainson, 1829); Troglodytes aedon Vieillot, 1809, Thryomanes bewickii (Audubon, 1827)) and the owl (Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769)). In the case of peasants and salineros (people extracting salt from mines), these ECPs help them to interpret rain announcements that allow them to prepare actions; for instance, the salineros rush the collection and protection of salt in the face of this rain forecast.
“Also, the one who sings is the saltapared, sings also when is going to rain. Ah! also the roadrunner warns, that almost does not sing, that, when it is very hot and the time is already set then he sings and it is going to rain, yes”
-Man, 73 years.
Finally, Corvus corax and species of the Trochilidae were registered in the ritual category, which are birds used as elements within rituals of limpias (spiritual cleaning).
Management practices
Three practices of bird management were identified: hunting, capture and bird nurturing. The birds that are under these practices are subsequently destined to various forms of use.
Hunting. Bird hunting is carried out only with a slingshot and is intended to obtain individuals for food use, medicinal use or to prepare and preserve the bird as amulet. This activity is performed in hills or agricultural fields occasionally, in the case of food use, hunting is done for immediate use, while birds hunted for medicinal use or as amulet can be kept for later use (Tables 2, 3).
Capture. The chicks of several bird species are captured in the nest, occasionally, while other activities are carried out in hills or plots. Such are the cases of grazing and caring for cattle or goats, the preparation of the land, planting or harvesting of crops, harvesting of fruits and inflorescences of cacti or insects, can also be carried out by a specific order; the birds that are caught are destined only as ornamental birds (Fig. 5).
In general, children and women make the capture from April to August. Some men also involve in the capture and take the chicks to their homes. Occasional captures are also made in the homegardens; in addition, it is common that people give a bird as present.
In the forest and agricultural fields, nests are identified through the behavior of adult individuals; once located, one or all the chicks are captured, depending on the amount chicks found in the nest, and according to the species. Although no specific sites for capturing chicks were identified, the canyons, cacti forest and the agroforestry systems were referred to as the more frequented places for carrying out this practice.
The male individuals are selected for captures since these have more intense coloring of the plumage than females and emit striking songs, both characteristics are appreciated in ornamental birds. Selection of male chicks is carried out according to their size; the largest chicks being males, and the "transparency" of the beak; according to the handlers, the nostrils of the chicks should be observed, if it can be seen through the holes in the chick, the chick is most likely male. People decide to leave the females in the nest so that these species continue to reproduce.
Bird nurturing
In Zapotitlán Salinas there has not been documented reproduction of wild birds in captivity. Whether the chicks are destined to be kept in the captor's house or is intended for sale, it must be taught to eat, it is fed with a variety of native cactus fruits, in addition to other domesticated fruits, seeds and other foods such as dough, chickpea, chili, goat milk and boiled egg, depending on the species.
In addition, birds must get used to people and the noise that surrounds the house so, to ensure their survival, they cannot be sold until that period of adaptation ends and eats by themselves, this process is carried out, mostly by women or children guided and helped by adults.
Persistence and loss of forms of use and other categories of interaction
The use of birds for food and medicine are widespread throughout the country; several species of the Columbidae are selected for consumption, this preference may be related to the flavor of the meat, provided by its granivorous diet, with its presence and abundance in populated areas and with its hunting facility [7, 44, 56, 57].
The current medicinal use of hummingbird and vulture species in Mexico is related to the beliefs that various regions of the country have preserved since pre-Hispanic times; these birds had a strong presence and deep meaning in the Mesoamerican worldview [58]. The hummingbird represented rebirth, vitality, sexuality and since then, healing powers were attributed to treat epilepsy, so its current use to treat heart disease represents a permanence of knowledge and this reading and interpretation in the community worldview. While the vulture had the function in the world of cleaning the rotten; had access and contact with the underworld and represented purification [58, 59].
Norms, agreements and transmission of local environmental knowledge
Management practices allow birds to continue to reproduce, ensure a greater probability of survival by avoiding the capture of adult individuals and the capture of birds by people outside the community is monitored, when they identify someone with cages trying to catch birds, they attract their attention and prevent them from being carried away.
Local environmental knowledge linked to birds it is transmitted generationally; from grandparents and parents to children and grandchildren. It is taught to recognize the birds and their songs and to identify the nests corresponding to the species, the migration seasons of the migratory species, the process of capture and nurturing in those families that perform this practice, as well as the reading and interpretation of the predictor birds or "poultry birds".
This teaching-learning process is linked to experience and observation of the environment, it is transmitted while walking and working the field, through daily observation and the assessment, use and conservation of species.
Persistence and loss of human-bird interactions and knowledge
Given the changes in the uses of the local birdlife, there is a process of loss of knowledge; knowledge linked to food and medicinal uses is more vulnerable to the passage of time, compared to those linked to reading the environment and cultural interpretations.
A hypothesis derived from this research is that this is related to the effort that needs to be invested to obtain the birds and use them directly, as well as with the persistence of the utilitarian value over time. In addition to the above, restrictions to using of wildlife in the community, as well as access to other resources have led to the discontinuation of wildlife for nutritional and medicinal purposes.
On the other hand, for the interpretation of the ECPs and the omens, in which a reading of the environment and predictions is developed, these processes are still carried out to the extent that they are still useful for the daily life of the inhabitants. In addition, the teaching of these dynamics of reading and interpretation continue being transmitted, while observation allows the residents to establish complex relationships with their natural environment and from that generate environmental knowledge at the local level to deal with uncertainty in time and space [15].
Environmental changes in Zapotitlán Salinas
The interviewees said that the raining patterns have changed, particularly the temporality and intensity of rains. Therefore, the capacity of predicting events of rain and their characteristics by people has decreased their effectivity and there is a generalized perception of rainfall scarcity in the region.
Such perceived rainfall scarcity is the main explanation that people give to the decline of crop production in recent years, a situation that has led to a gradual abandonment of agricultural activities. Recently, alternative crops have been implemented (for example: pitahaya, papaya, agave), in addition, the increasing of tourism associated activities and the provision of services (food services, lodging), as the main economic activities that the population consider more profitable than agriculture has been increased.
It is also explained by people that such decrease in rainfall is the cause of changes in the structure in homegardens within the town, which have modified their composition, reducing the presence of plant species that require more water.
The environmental changes that have taken place in Zapotitlán Salinas at different scales shape the relationship that people establish with their environment and with the biodiversity occurring in it. The interactions with the local birdlife have been transformed from the decree of the Reserve and other less obvious processes that have occurred gradually over time (Fig. 6). From the decree of the TCBR, in 1998, the capture and sale of ornamental birds was prohibited, as well as the use and trade of other faunal and plant groups. These prohibitions were stipulated in the management program of the Reserve.
Given these restrictions, the change in bird capture activities was gradual and has been reflected, to a greater extent, in the decrease of commercialization of ornamental birds outside Zapotitlán Salinas. Inside the town the commercialization continues happening, however, this does not represent an important economic income for those who practice it, similarly as it happened in the past, according to local people perception.
Thus, we can see that other forms of interaction arose between local people and the birds of Zapotitlán, from the development of activities associated to tourism in the context of the TCBR, Bird watching, for instance, has emerged as an activity of interest to some visitors. In particular, is attractive to foreign observers and to the academic sector that is dedicated to ornithological research, which can be facilitated by the local guides of the botanical garden, who have a detailed knowledge of its local bird diversity.
In addition to the time scale, there are defined spaces where the described interactions occur. The importance of the resources occurring in the semi-terrace plots (cuaxustles) and homegardens for the maintenance of the populations of some bird species is noticeable, since these may be functioning as spaces for resting and accessing food when they are scarce in the forest. The loss of some plant species in the homegardens, which can no longer be maintained due to the water availability, may be generating changes in these interactions, therefore, it seems important to conserve the homegardens that still maintain plant resources, both native and some introduced that do not require much water.
Theoretical contribution from the environmental sciences perspective to approach human-bird interactions
Differently to other perspectives that focus on social or natural aspects, the ethnobiological perspectives makes possible to identify the connection between use, management and symbolism that human groups have in relation to birds and the representations that are made in a past and present temporal continuum [60]. Through investigating the local names that people give to their birds, we can know the diversity that a human group recognizes, identifying the characteristics that it observes of the species, as well as the cultural significance they possess.
The knowledge that we documented through this perspective includes the interpretation of birds as indicators of annual cycles and environmental quality, as a guide to some human actions, as well as elements of resource use regulation, which allows us to analyze its ecological and sociocultural importance, at various scales, since this knowledge although in principle is studied locally, it is possible then to find patterns at other scales [60, 61].
The environmental perspective is an approach that unifies social and ecological systems and contributes to ethnobiology allowing the approach to spatial and temporal scales in a dynamic way. Therefore, it is possible to link the ecological, economic and social changes of the region to understand the impact of these factors in the human-bird relations beyond a static historical perspective.