Public perceptions of 1080 poison use in New Zealand

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2456974/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Public perceptions of 1080 poison use in New Zealand

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2456974/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

You are reading this latest preprint version

Environmental policies are often contentious because of the public nature of their effects which individuals are typically unable to avoid. This paper provides evidence about the level of public support for and opposition to aerial 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate) application to control vertebrate pests, and the role of beliefs about related factors that influence individuals’ positions on aerial 1080. Data are analysed from a 2019 survey of New Zealand adults which assessed participants’ views on 1080-related matters, gained their opinions about pest impacts, pest control and the role of science, and gauged their acceptance of 1080. Priors were that opposition to 1080 would be negatively related with education, trust in science and government, and negative beliefs about outcomes of using 1080. We apply factor analysis, cluster analysis, logistic regression and the potential for conflict index to gain insight into the level, strength, drivers for and heterogeneity of beliefs about aerial 1080 use.

Aerial 1080

sodium fluoroacetate

factor analysis

cluster analysis

potential for conflict

Environmental and health policies are often contentious because of the public nature of their effects. Multiple members of society share the same water and air quality, scenic amenity, noise exposure, disease protection, etc. Because it is not possible to control these environmental attributes for individuals, society must decide their optimal levels, and the mechanisms used to attain them. This contrasts with private goods for which the individual can make their own choices. The social imposition aspect of environmental and health policies predisposes them to be contentious because individuals are unable to avoid socially or government-mandated outcomes and/or methods that they may deem to be undesirable. This has given rise to high levels of dissent and protest about policies related to vaccinations, public water-supply fluoridation, and pesticide use, amongst others.

An example is aerial application of 1080 poison (sodium fluoroacetate) to aid achievement of desired conservation outcomes in New Zealand, which is a hotly debated topic, with factions strongly supporting and opposing aerial 1080 use. Concerns have been ongoing – three public opinion surveys between 2001 and 2009 reported a high level of polarisation, with 32–43% opposed to 1080, and 43–52% supportive (Green & Rohan, 2012). Numerous social media groups have formed on both sides of the issue. Both sides frequently frame their positions in terms of warfare, invasion and defence (Bidwell & Thompson, 2015), which highlights the emotiveness of the issue and frames it as an identity-based, deep-rooted conflict for some entities (Madden & McQuinn, 2014).

Large-scale aerial 1080 applications continue after supportive public agency reviews (ERMA, 2008; PCE 2011; EPA, 2013), and the New Zealand government defends its use of 1080 through traditional and social media (e.g. DOC, undated; TBFree, 2018). In 2013, New Zealand’s Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment recommended reduction of the budget for research into alternatives to 1080 to fund expansion of the land area covered by 1080 (PCE, 2013). Support for aerial 1080 use has come from the conservation and agricultural sectors, a book (Hansford, 2016), and in social media.

Sustained opposition to aerial 1080 occurs via physical and media protests, social media, a documentary (Graf & Graf, 2009) and several books (Benfield 2011, Benfield 2015, Kelly 2020, McQueen 2017, Robinson 2017). Two political parties formed with the primary purpose to oppose 1080 (the now defunct Ban 1080 Party, and the NZ Outdoors Party (NZOP, undated)]. The Ban 1080 Party Facebook page provides links to many anti-1080 media (Ban 1080 Party, 2016).

Several other political parties (e.g., Māori, New Conservative, and the Advance NZ/NZ Public Party coalition) have policies to ban, phase out, or find alternatives to 1080. Before the 2017 national election all three parties that formed the government (Labour, Greens, New Zealand First) signalled desirability of reducing 1080 use. There have been sixteen citizen-initiated petitions to parliament seeking to ban or limit 1080, two of which are current, and none have been successful.

In claiming that vehement opposition to aerial 1080 is “because of the collateral impacts on game animals and risks for dogs”, Russell et al. (2015, p.522) do not portray the full spectrum of reasons for opposition. Human health risks from water or food contamination or ingestion of 1080 dust, are obvious and prominent. Bidwell (2011, p.60) notes “in the case of 1080, it is the public authorities who are seen to be acting in the deviant role by dropping a deadly poison on the land while assuring people that it is no risk to health”. Other objections to aerial 1080 application include (Benfield, 2011; Benfield, 2015; Green & Rohan, 2012; Hansford, 2016; Kelly, 2020; McQueen, 2017; Robinson, 2017):

ineffectiveness at achieving the stated objectives,
unwanted by-kill of desired species through direct or secondary poisoning,
animal welfare concerns,
adverse effects on recreation,
beliefs that target “pest” species are not problematic,
vested interests of the 1080 industry,
other vested interests, and
ulterior political motives

These concerns have generated research into alternative pest control methods, such as gene drives, pest-specific toxin baiting, and Trojan females. The alternatives face similar public acceptance challenges (MacDonald et al., 2020; Russell et al., 2015).

1080 is the common name for synthetic sodium fluoroacetate (FCH₂CO₂Na), an acute toxin that kills through disruption of the Krebs cycle, and is highly effective against mammals (Eason et al., 2017). New Zealand consumes approximately 80% of the world production of 1080 (ERMA, 2008). 1080 is used in Australia and the USA (Eason et al., 2017) but application is limited because of unwanted by-kill of desirable species. Apart from bats, New Zealand forests were devoid of mammals prior to human settlement, significantly reducing (but not eliminating) the potential for undesirable by-kill of native species from 1080 poison.

For the twelve years 2008 to 2019, 600 New Zealand aerial 1080 operations covered 75,150 km², an average of 6,263 km² per year (EPA, 2020), which is about 2.3% of New Zealand’s land area. OSPRI (Operational Solutions for Primary Industries) was responsible for most aerial 1080 use, averaging 3,075 km² per year (49% of the total), closely followed by the Department of Conservation (DOC) (2,974 km² per year, 47%). OSPRI is the agency responsible for programmes to eliminate bovine tuberculosis, a disease transmitted by, inter alia, possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). The purpose of OSPRI’s aerial 1080 operations is to reduce possum densities to levels incapable of sustaining bovine tuberculosis within the possum population. DOC uses aerial 1080 poison for native species protection by reducing populations of introduced animals, including rats (Rattus spp.) and possums by direct poisoning and mustelids by secondary poisoning. Aerial 1080 advocates claim it to be an effective, affordable tool for killing target species at sufficient scale across difficult country where other methods are impractical or there are no effective alternatives (e.g. DOC, undated; PCE, 2011).

Polarization

Views about 1080 are highly polarized (Wilson & Cannon, 2004). In addition to the evidence cited by Green & Rohan (2012) about the extent of social polarization, 1080-related social media groups typically exclude people with conflicting opinions and frequently engage in ad hominem attacks and ridicule of those holding views counter to their own. Science literacy and education (Drummond & Fischhoff, 2017) and social media (Lee et al., 2014; Spohr, 2017) may influence polarization.

Drummond & Fischhoff (2017) showed trust in science had a highly significant effect on alignment with scientific evidence about six controversial science topics. (stem cell research, big bang, human evolution, climate change, nanotechnology, genetically modified foods). This is important in the context of 1080, because there is a prominent discussion about the trustworthiness of 1080 science (Wilson & Cannon, 2004). Anti-1080 advocates commonly claim that scientific research on 1080 cannot be trusted because the scientists are advantaged by portraying 1080 positively.

Drummond & Fischhoff (2017) identified significant effects of political conservatism and religious fundamentalism on trust in science. Science literacy had significant positive effects for four topics, and general education effects were positive for three topics, whereas science education had a negative effect for climate change. Significant, additional, interaction effects with political conservatism and religious fundamentalism on level of polarization for some of these items signals an important social dimension in personal beliefs. Science denial may arise from layperson naivety based on ignorance, or from well-informed people with specific motives.

The public, scientists, governments, political and religious organisations, industry and the media can all exhibit denialism, which may be associated with world-views such as political and religious convictions and anthropomorphism (Björnberg et al., 2017). Knowledge of and trust in science and educational achievement are related to beliefs in pseudo-science and conspiracy. Fasce & Picó (2019) assessed the role of these items on what they term “unwarranted beliefs”, identifying a strong negative relationship between trust in science and conspiracy beliefs. There was an inverse relationship between both academic achievement in general, and factual knowledge of science in particular, with beliefs in pseudo-science.

Definitions and perceptions about conspiracy differ greatly, and cloud discussion. Conspiracies do occur, so out-of-hand rejection of conspiracy theories is unwarranted, as are generalisations about conspiracy proponents (Dentith 2018, 2020). This is important in the context of the New Zealand debate because some anti-1080 activists view 1080 as part of a conspiracy, a view shared by the New Zealand Public Party (Mitchell 2020). Some pro-1080 proponents either ignore these conspiracy claims, or refute them. We make no judgement on such claims. However, 1080-related conspiracy claims are one-sided, 1080 opponents claim that there is a pro-1080 conspiracy (e.g. Kelly 2020, Robinson 2017), whereas 1080 supporters refute such allegations (e.g. Hansford 2016). Hence, all else being equal, one might expect attributes related to conspiracy theory adoption (lower educational achievement, lack of trust in science, etc.) to be more prevalent amongst those who are anti-1080.

Lee et al. (2014, p.707) note “[t]he structure of social networks is deemed important in explaining attitude polarization mainly because it tends to function as individuals’ information, where various political messages are diffused”. There may be social advantages for individuals from adopting increasingly extreme positions within a group (such as the anti or pro-1080 communities), which constantly moves the group to a more extreme position (Spohr, 2017). This can result in more partisan groups and “people in these extremely homogeneous groups in many instances even ignore facts that would prove their arguments wrong ... [t]he consequences of this process are communities that effectively function as feedback loops or echo chambers” (Spohr, 2017, p.151–152). This situation would diminish effectiveness of the science-based approach the Department of Conservation has adopted to diminish anti-1080 sentiments (e.g. https://www.sciencemediacentre.co.nz/2018/09/05/1080-use-in-nz-expert-qa/).

A second avenue for polarization is the role of selective information consumption (Lee et al., 2014; Spohr, 2017). This can arise from biased information processing (Taber & Lodge, 2006), in which individuals are more receptive to information that confirms their existing views (confirmation bias), or more rigorously scrutinise information inconsistent with their existing views — disconfirmation bias or motivated scepticism (Lee et al., 2014). There may be a tendency for some individuals to receive information that is consistent with, and reinforces, their own views. This phenomenon has been termed the ‘filter bubble’ (Pariser, 2011). Nguyen (2018, p.1) labels situations in which “other relevant voices have been actively excluded and discredited”, ‘echo chambers’.

Based on interviews of people with strong views on 1080 use, Bidwell (2011, p.74) concluded: “Almost all the research participants, no matter whether they were supporters or opponents of 1080, believed that those who disagreed with them were either hiding something, or had closed minds and just did not want to listen to the other side of the debate”. Estévez et al. (2014, p.26) observed that “conflicts arose when decision-making processes lacked participation and transparency, a situation that led local communities to mistrust government agencies”.

Bidwell (2011) notes that both pro and anti-1080 advocates used science to bolster their arguments, and were critical of the science of the other group. These views are consistent with Bauer et al.’s (2007) description of the “Science in-and-of Society” paradigm, which depicts public (mis)understanding of science as a deficit of technical experts. Wilson & Cannon (2004), however, note that some Department of Conservation staff adopt an alternative “public deficit” view. In some cases, anti-1080 arguments are about the quality of the science (e.g., see various posts at https://1080science.co.nz/science-against-1080/, including Pietak, 2011; Pollard, 2017; Whiting-O’Keefe & Whiting-O’Keefe, 2007), whereas others claim that scientific outcomes are predetermined to fit a political, or other, agenda (Benfield, 2011; Benfield, 2015; McQueen, 2017). Neutral and pro-1080 advocates (PCE, 2013; Hansford, 2016 respectively) draw on a voluminous scientific literature to support their position (see Eason et al., 2011; PCE, 2011; Fairweather et al., 2014 for summaries), and they too challenge the motives of those holding opposing views.

Diethelm & McKee (2009) identify common methods to challenge or reject science. These include claims of scientific conspiracy to suppress dissent, use of fake experts and marginalization or denigration of real experts, and selective use of isolated papers or refutation of weak papers to discredit a field of research. Other methods are creation of impossible expectations about the quality of research data, or unrealistic expectations about what research is capable of delivering. Some criticisms employ logical fallacies (which include red herrings, straw men, false analogy, and the excluded middle analogy) and misrepresentation. These strategies are all evident in social media and other debates about 1080 use in New Zealand.

The public can be sceptical of claims of scientific proof. For example, in a recent survey of off-shore island residents’ attitudes to pest management near Auckland, New Zealand, Aley & Russell (2019) found that 22–28% disagreed with the statement “If you are told something has been scientifically proven, you can have confidence in the results”. Interpretation of scientific information can be difficult, with two broad avenues of credibility evaluation: epistemic vigilance (Sperber et al., 2010), which is evaluation of honesty and/or competence of the communicator (the source), or content evaluation. Blancke et al. (2017, p.82) claim; “Scientific beliefs are often too difficult to comprehend for lay people, which makes content evaluation impossible. This leads people to accept, or reject, scientific concepts mainly on the basis of trust”.

Educational achievement, access to information, and political and social alignment are related to science denial and other forms of pseudoscience, and underlying trust in authority, beliefs about conspiracy theories and invalidity of mainstream science often underpin science denial (Blancke et al., 2017; Hansson, 2018; Sperber et al., 2010).

Research objectives

The contentious nature of the 1080 debate raises questions about the prevalence of support for and opposition to use of 1080, and the reasons underlying those positions. Kannemeyer (2017) reports growing opposition to 1080 in historic research, but does not provide recent evidence. Changes in public prominence of the issue, as well as opinions about proposed alternative solutions to it (MacDonald et al., 2020) may have influenced opinions. Anti-1080 sentiment in New Zealand is highly visible. However, tactics to promote the issue, such as a dedicated campaign to inject anti-1080 responses into unrelated media (Donnell, 2018; Peacock, 2018), may mean that high visibility is not a clear indicator of social acceptance. The strength of public opinions on aerial 1080 use, and its prevalence within sectors of society, is unknown.

This paper provides evidence about the level of contemporary support for and opposition to aerial 1080 application amongst the New Zealand public, and the role of beliefs about related factors that influence individuals’ positions on aerial 1080. The preceding brief review suggests individuals’ positions on aerial 1080 use can be affected by their education, social networks, trust of science and/or authority, access to and interpretation of science, and beliefs about the efficacy and effects of 1080. We explore these relationships.

Knowledge of these matters may usefully inform social action to encourage changes in support for or objection to 1080 use. We do not evaluate the merits or concerns about aerial 1080 per se.

The purpose of this research is to:

Identify the levels of support and opposition in the New Zealand adult population to use of aerial 1080 poison
Assess the relationship between relevant beliefs, personal attributes and individuals’ positions on use of aerial 1080 in New Zealand.

Data are from a (now triennial) survey of New Zealand adults in early 2019 (Hughey et al., 2019) that measured perceptions about the state of the New Zealand environment and its management. Questions about 1080 were a special topic within the survey. Twenty-four statements, assessed on a seven-point Likert scale (Strongly disagree to Strongly agree), assessed participants’ views on 1080-related matters. A further set of questions, using the same Likert-scale responses, provided information on opinions about pest impacts, pest control and the role of science. Five questions, rated on a seven-point scale from Strongly oppose to Strongly support, assessed acceptance of 1080. Demographic information complemented the 1080-related questions.

A survey panel maintained by Horizon Research received an invitation to participate in the online survey, resulting in 2,073 completed responses. Respondents differed from the population in several ways: Māori, 18–19 year olds and people seventy years and older were under-represented, while 60–69 year olds, those with higher education levels and urban-dwellers were over-represented. While these differences may limit the ability to draw conclusions about the representativeness of responses for the whole of New Zealand, they do not affect the ability to investigate the relationships between responses.

Analysis

We report mean responses to Likert scale questions, and several measures of the distributions within the Likert scale responses. We report the proportion of respondents on one side of the distribution, irrespective of strength of response (e.g. percent support/agree). The Potential for Conflict Index (Vaske, 2018; Vaske et al., 2010) provides a simple metric of dissension amongst respondents. We used Vaske’s online calculator1 to create PCI₂ scores, which include the “neither” values in our bipolar scales (D₁) and assume a linear response across the scale (Power = 1).

Commonalities in responses across the 1080-related questions were identified through factor analysis (Principal axis factoring, Promax rotation, Kaiser normalization). Responses were reverse-coded where necessary to ensure score conformity. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin score (KMO) measured sampling adequacy, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated significance of correlations within the data. Significant factors required Eigenvalues greater than one, with the appropriateness of the cut-off confirmed by visual scree plot examination. Cronbach’s alpha (α) measured factor reliability.

K-means cluster-analysis grouped respondents for psychographic segmentation of responses (Metag and Schäfer, 2018). Clusters were based on responses indicating opposition to/support for controlling predators with 1080, using more 1080, more pest trapping to reduce use of 1080, more pest shooting to reduce use of 1080, and banning 1080. Chi-squared tests identified differences in cluster membership rates for discrete categories, and ANOVA did so for continuous variables. Logistic regression enabled exploration of effects on cluster membership while controlling for effects of covariates.

[1] https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/jerryv/potential-conflict-index/

Descriptive statistics

Questions evaluated support for five 1080-related actions. While there is reasonably strong support for substituting trapping and shooting for 1080, opinions are divided about both banning 1080 and using more aerial 1080 (Table 1, Fig. 1). The modal response to both questions is Neither support nor oppose, but there are thick tails on either side of the distributions. Notably, 16.4% are strongly opposed to using more aerial 1080, with a similar proportion strongly opposed to a ban on 1080. Polarization is more evident for banning 1080, with the second most common response being strong opposition to a ban (15.7%), and the third most common response being strong support for a ban (14.5%). Potential for conflict (PCI₂) metrics are low for trapping and shooting to reduce 1080 use – strong majorities favour these measures. PCI₂ scores are moderately high for the other three items, underscoring significant public dissension on these actions.

Table 1

Support for 1080-related actions
Item	Mean Likert Score	SE	Supportive	PCI₂	N
More pest trapping to reduce 1080 use	5.272	0.031	71.7%	0.116	1,785
More pest shooting to reduce 1080 use	5.125	0.033	67.1%	0.150	1,771
Controlling predators with 1080	4.210	0.043	44.9%	0.349	1,784
Banning 1080	3.938	0.046	33.9%	0.347	1,771
Using more aerial 1080	3.912	0.043	36.8%	0.335	1,777
Scores: 1 = Strongly oppose, 2 = Oppose, 3 = Somewhat oppose, 4 = Neither support nor oppose, 5 = Somewhat support, 6 = Support, 7 = Strongly support Supportive: Response is either “somewhat support”, “support” or “strongly support”

Statements for evaluating outcomes of 1080 use employed both positive (beneficial outcomes) and negative (adverse outcomes) framing (Table 2). There are no extreme population means; all means fall within the range 3–5 on the 1–7 scale and have small standard errors relative to the mean. The strongest agreement about beneficial outcomes related to effectiveness of 1080 in killing pests cheaply, and to 1080 use increasing native bird populations. There was mild disagreement that 1080 is safe or humane. The strongest mean agreement with adverse outcomes was about the conflict of 1080 with New Zealand’s clean, green image. Also prominent was agreement about 1080 killing native species, and risk to human health. The strongest disagreement was that 1080 increases rat populations, and three items related to conspiracy theories. PCI₂ scores identify the most divergent beliefs. The highest scores were for 1080 conflicts with clean and green (PCI₂ = .335) and 1080 is cruel (PCI₂ = .317).

Table 2

1080 use statement scores
Item	Mean	SE	Agree	PCI₂	N
Beneficial outcomes
1080 effectively kills pests	4.850	0.034	60.2%	0.182	1,788
1080 is an effective introduced predator killer	4.679	0.036	55.4%	0.222	1,778
1080 is the cheapest way to control pests	4.571	0.034	47.5%	0.155	1,780
1080 increases native bird populations	4.417	0.038	44.7%	0.244	1,799
1080 breaks down quickly	4.100	0.035	31.3%	0.186	1,787
1080 is safe	3.736	0.038	29.3%	0.265	1,777
1080 is humane	3.703	0.036	26.0%	0.223	1,785
Adverse outcomes
1080 conflicts with clean and green	4.575	0.041	54.6%	0.335	1,780
1080 kills native insects	4.420	0.032	39.8%	0.134	1,783
1080 kills native animals in waterways	4.414	0.035	45.7%	0.213	1,793
1080 is a risk to human health	4.362	0.038	46.8%	0.287	1,792
1080 is cruel	4.229	0.040	42.0%	0.317	1,792
1080 adversely affects recreation	4.161	0.036	38.8%	0.235	1,780
1080 causes an unacceptable number of deer deaths	4.052	0.036	30.3%	0.191	1,784
1080 kills species it is meant to save	3.981	0.038	32.9%	0.245	1,774
1080 harms native vegetation	3.827	0.038	28.3%	0.246	1,789
1080 is a tool of the New World Order	3.660	0.037	22.2%	0.175	1,777
1080 makes the users rich	3.632	0.035	19.0%	0.164	1,781
1080 allows the government to control the food supply	3.411	0.036	18.5%	0.189	1,785
1080 increases rat populations	3.264	0.032	10.6%	0.123	1,786
Scores: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat disagree, 4 = Neither agree nor disagree, 5 = Somewhat agree, 6 = Agree, 7 = Strongly agree

Figure 2 compares mean item responses with consensus scores. There is high consensus for items low on the y-axis. This includes beliefs such as “1080 increases rat populations”, which people disagreed with, and “1080 is the cheapest way to kill pests”, which they agreed with. Respondents generally disagreed with the three conspiracy-related beliefs, and there was a reasonably high degree of consensus. While there was agreement that 1080 is a risk to human health, is cruel, and conflicts with New Zealand’s clean green image, there was a high degree of heterogeneity for these beliefs.

Five questions addressed effects of pests per se (Table 3). There was general agreement that possums kill native birds, spread bovine TB, and that pests are a significant threat to native species. There was some disagreement that New Zealand ecosystems have adapted to pests (28% agree and 39% disagree to some level) and, in aggregate, no opinion either way about whether other species would fill ecological gaps created by possum, rat and stoat removal (30% disagree, 36% agree, but those disagreeing tending to be stronger in that belief). PCI₂ scores are low for all five items, signalling relatively homogeneous beliefs.

Table 3

Effects of pest statement scores
Item	Mean	SE	Agree	PCI₂	N
Possums, rats and stoats are a significant threat to native species	5.710	0.031	81.8%	0.094	1,780
Possums kill native birds and/or eat their eggs	5.319	0.033	70.6%	0.141	1,797
Possums spread bovine TB to cattle	5.051	0.032	56.8%	0.083	1,798
Other predators will fill an ecological void created by removal of possums, rats and stoats	4.005	0.034	36.3%	0.231	1,792
The NZ ecosystem has adapted to possums, rats and stoats	3.644	0.036	28.1%	0.253	1,794
Scores: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat disagree, 4 = Neither agree nor disagree, 5 = Somewhat agree, 6 = Agree, 7 = Strongly agree

Three questions assessed trust (Table 4). The great majority trusted scientists, with only 14.4% of respondents disagreeing to any extent with the statement “I trust scientists”. Fewer people trusted government-funded science ̶ 18.5% of respondents expressed some level of agreement with the statement that “NZ Government funded science can’t be trusted”. There was even less trust in government agencies, with 27.0% disagreeing to some extent with “I trust government agencies”. Potential for conflict of interest is low to moderate for these items.

Table 4

Trust-related item scores
Item	Mean	SE	Agree	PCI₂	N
NZ Government funded science can’t be trusted	3.373	0.035	18.5%	0.211	1,788
I trust government agencies	4.143	0.035	44.3%	0.260	1,791
I trust scientists	4.876	0.033	62.5%	0.204	1,787
Scores: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Somewhat disagree, 4 = Neither agree nor disagree, 5 = Somewhat agree, 6 = Agree, 7 = Strongly agree

Factor analysis

The 1080-related question responses were suitable for factor analysis: KMO = .956; Bartlett’s test was highly significant. Responses about the effects of pests (Table 3) were highly correlated with 1080-related responses, and failed statistical tests for inclusion.

Two factors described responses to the 1080-related statements (Table 5). Factor 1 (Negative: Cronbach’s α = .930) included nine items related to perceived adverse effects of aerial 1080 use. Factor 2 (Positive: Cronbach’s α = .872) included five items related to perceived positive outcomes from aerial 1080 use. Eigenvalues were 8.083 and 1.243. Factor 1 is not sensitive to exclusion of variables, with Cronbach’s α ranging from .925 to .930 after deletion of individual items. Factor 2 is more sensitive, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from .839 to .852 after deletion of individual items.

Table 5

Factor analysis pattern matrix
	Factor 1 (Negative) α = .930	Factor 2 (Positive) α = .872
§ 1080 kills native insects	0.865
§ 1080 kills native animals in waterways	0.793
§ 1080 kills species it's meant to save	0.785
§ 1080 adversely affects recreation	0.776
§ 1080 is a risk to human health	0.767
§ 1080 harms native vegetation	0.740
§ 1080 conflicts with clean green	0.733
§ 1080 causes unacceptable number of deer deaths	0.717
§ 1080 is cruel	0.663
1080 is the cheapest way to control pests		0.839
1080 is an effective introduced predator killer		0.737
1080 increases native bird populations		0.719
1080 breaks down quickly		0.673
1080 is safe		0.601
§ Reverse coded
Cluster analysis

There were significant correlations between responses to the five questions about support for actions related to 1080 (with negative items reverse coded for conformity), except for between support for controlling predators with 1080 and both pest trapping and pest shooting (Table 6).

Table 6

Pearson correlations of levels of support for 1080-related actions. Two-tailed significance in parentheses. N = 1,737
	Using more aerial 1080	Pest trapping to reduce use of 1080: reverse coded	Pest shooting to reduce use of 1080: reverse coded	Banning 1080: reverse coded
Controlling predators with 1080	.916 (.000)	.037 (.127)	.022 (.358)	.709 (.000)
Using more aerial 1080		.084 (.000)	.051 (.033)	.682 (.000)
Pest trapping			.770 (.000)	.188 (.000)
Pest shooting				.116 (.000)

Responses to the five questions about support for actions related to 1080 formed the basis for three clusters of responses; the Anti-1080 cluster (n = 403), the Neutral cluster (n = 589), and the Pro-1080 cluster (n = 665). Chi-squared tests of cluster membership differences identified numerous significant effects for categorical respondent attributes; with Māori, females, New Zealand-born, lower educated, people living in small towns, and people living outside the Northern region being more likely to be a member of the anti-1080 cluster (Table 7).

Table 7

1080-related cluster member determinants
Variable	χ²	df	p	Group more likely to be anti-1080
Ethnicity	60.012	4	.000	Māori
Gender	48.816	2	.000	Females
Born in NZ	7.058	2	.029	Born in NZ
Education	97.189	12	.000	Without a degree
Community size	47.995	6	.000	Live in places with fewer than 10,000 residents
Region of residence	15.749	4	.003	Live outside the Northern region
Trust in government	273.295	12	.000	Lower trust
Trust in scientists	276.842	12	.000	Lower trust
NZ government-funded research can’t be trusted	293.149	12	.000	Lower trust

For continuous respondent-attributes, one-way analysis of variance identified significant cluster-membership effects from the two factor scores and age (Table 8). Consistent with expectations, Anti-1080 Cluster members had the lowest scores for both factors and Pro-1080 Cluster members had the highest scores. Neutral Cluster members were notably younger on average than members of the other two clusters.

Table 8

ANOVA of factor scores and age on cluster membership.
Item	Cluster	Mean	95% Confidence Interval for Mean		F	df	p
			Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Adverse effects factor	Anti-1080	-1.018	-1.082	-0.955	745.66	2, 1637	< .001
	Neutral	-0.082	-0.125	-0.039
	Pro-1080	0.691	0.626	0.757
Effectiveness factor	Anti-1080	-0.983	-1.057	-0.910	1017.89	2, 1637	< .001
	Neutral	-0.197	-0.235	-0.159
	Pro-1080	0.770	0.719	0.821
Respondent age	Anti-1080	48.42	46.93	49.90	85.13	2, 1610	< .001
	Neutral	40.11	38.87	41.34
	Pro-1080	51.82	50.51	53.14

All within-item cluster means are significantly different at p ≤ .002

Logistic regression allows exploration of concurrent effects of continuous and categorical variables on membership of the Anti-1080 Cluster (Table 9). Both models in Table 9 have extremely good fit. Place of birth and ethnicity were highly correlated, so both could not be included in the same model. Model fit and estimated coefficients are not sensitive to which of these variables is included. People born outside New Zealand and people who are not of Māori or New Zealand European ethnicity are less likely to be in the anti-1080 cluster.

Table 9

Anti-1080 Cluster membership logit models. Standard errors in parentheses.
Variable	Model A	Model B
Constant	-4.190^**** (0.361)	-3.550^**** (0.556)
Trust in government agencies	-0.360^**** (0.081)	-0.376^**** (0.083)
Trust in scientists	0.221^** (0.088)	0.231^*** (0.088)
1080 Adverse effects factor score	-2.149^**** (0.193)	-2.155^**** (0.195)
1080 Effectiveness factor score	-1.486^**** (0.190)	-1.446^**** (0.191)
Age	0.042^**** (0.006)	0.040^**** (0.006)
No high school qualification	-0.963^*** (0.361)	-1.005^*** (0.367)
Other Ethnicity		-0.512^** (0.241)
Born in NZ	0.515^** (0.229)
N	1495	1487
χ²	904.949^****	896.736^****
Correct predictions	89.6%	89.6%
LL_Model	-380.719	-378.074
LL_{Constant−only model}	-833.194	-826.441
McFadden’s R²	.543	.543
Cox & Snell R²	.454	.453
Nagelkerke R²	.676	.675
, , , ** Significant at p = .10, .05, .01, .001

PCI₂ by cluster

The mean Likert scale responses and PCI₂ scores (Table 1) hide strong heterogeneity of responses. The mean score for “using more aerial 1080” (3.912) and PCI₂ (0.335) indicate overall neutrality, but with moderate heterogeneity of support for this action. Figure 3, which reports scores for each 1080-cluster, shows strong between-cluster heterogeneity of preferences, and extremely low within-cluster potential for conflict. In other words, there is strong polarization.

Anti-1080 cluster members oppose controlling predators with 1080 and using more aerial 1080, whereas they support banning 1080 and more shooting and trapping to reduce 1080 use. There is strong consensus on each of these items, particularly for using more aerial 1080. Pro-1080 cluster members have the opposite preferences to the anti-1080 cluster members for three items (controlling predators with 1080, using more aerial 1080, banning 1080), but also weakly support more trapping and shooting. The Pro-1080 group displays both the highest and lowest levels of consensus. They are unanimous in their support for controlling predators with 1080 (PCI₂ = 0.000), and are strongly opposed to banning 1080, albeit with relatively low consensus (PCI₂ = 0.191). While this is the largest PCI₂ score in Fig. 3, it is still small in comparison with other studies.

Priors were that opposition to 1080 would be negatively related with education, trust in science and government, and negative beliefs about outcomes of using 1080. We had no prior expectations about effects of age, sex or ethnicity.

Anti-1080 cluster membership was more likely for people without a degree (Table 7), and for those without a high school qualification (Table 9), confirming the hypothesis that education is negatively related to opposition to 1080.

Low levels for all three trust items increased likelihood of anti-1080 cluster membership (Table 7). However, this pattern changed in the regression models, in which higher trust in government agencies still decreased anti-1080 cluster membership, but where higher levels of trust in scientists increased anti-1080 cluster membership and trust in government-funded research had no effect. We have no explanation for this phenomenon.

Consistent with prior expectations, anti-1080 cluster members had the lowest mean adverse effects and effectiveness factor scores (Table 8). These outcomes carried over to the logistic regression models, in which people with higher scores on each of these items were less likely to be anti-1080 (Table 9).

After controlling for other effects in the regression models (Table 9), sex was not significant and age was positively associated with anti-1080 cluster membership. In contrast, the effect of age is bipolar in Table 8, which does not account for interactions. Sex was significant in the one-way test in Table 7, with females more likely than males to be anti-1080.

Horn and Kilvington (2002), Kannemeyer (2013) and Tipa (2008) identified diversity of views about 1080 within Māoridom. Further, Māori have different environment-related perceptions and behaviours, tending to evaluate the quality of the New Zealand environment lower than others, and to be more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviours (Kerr et al., 2016). In the current study, Māori had a higher probability than others of anti-1080 cluster membership (Table 7). However, the logistic regression did not identify significant differences between Māori and New Zealand Europeans (Table 9). This suggests that, while Māori are more likely to be anti-1080, the reason is not ethnicity per se, but is other significant factors in the regression models, such as age, education, trust and factor scores. For example, 15% of Māori respondents did not have a high school qualification, compared with 8% of non-Māori (χ² = 5.75, 1 dof, p = 0.016), and 13% of Māori respondents had a degree, whereas 24% of non-Māori did (χ² = 7.90, 1 dof, p = 0.005). Distrust of government agencies (χ² = 18.94, 6 dof, p = 0.004), and scientists (χ² = 15.71, 6 dof, p = 0.015) were higher for Māori. Māori were significantly younger than others (F = 12.79, [1, 1630] dof, p < .001), and had lower adverse effects (F = 13.91, [1, 1598] dof, p < .001) and effectiveness (F = 24.39, [1, 1598] dof, p < .001) factor scores, recalling that higher scores on both these scales favour 1080-use.

Previous wildlife/pest-management studies report PCI₂ measures that provide some basis for comparison with the current study. However, because PCI₂ scores vary by scale width, power and neutral-response treatment, comparison across studies requires care and further research is required to develop guidelines for interpreting relative PCI₂ scores (Vaske, 2010).

Vaske (2018) found a strong relationship between attitude and both mean acceptability and consensus of lethal management of mountain lions in four scenarios. He used a seven-point scale with neutral midpoint. PCI₂ ranged from high consensus (PCI₂ = 0.07, lethal control of a mountain lion that had been seen, but had done no harm, was highly unacceptable for people with a positive attitude) to high conflict (PCI₂ = 0.68, lethal control of a mountain lion that had injured a person, was neither acceptable nor unacceptable for people with a positive attitude).

Harper et al. (2016) compared consensus on beliefs and attitudes about wild pigs between Georgia and Illinois after collapsing the original five-point (Georgia) and seven-point (Illinois) scales to a three-point bipolar scale. Means were similar for all items, as was consensus for negative beliefs. However, consensus differed for positive beliefs. PCI₂ scores ranged from 0.05 to 0.51.

Sharp et al. (2011), using a five-point scale with neutral midpoint, found broadly similar consensus levels about two invasive species management options for their two visitor clusters. The highest PCI₂ score (0.33) was for complete eradication, for Adaptive Ecocentric cluster members, who also had stronger support and more consensus (PCI₂ = 0.06) for adaptive on-site management. Within cluster consensus was higher than aggregate consensus.

Our results indicate distinct psychographically segmented groups (Metag and Schäfer, 2018). While we have explored the relationship between the psychographic segments and “positions” on 1080 and other environmental issues, we have not attempted behavioural segmentation. This may be an avenue for future research, which would allow evaluation of the relationship between psychographic and behavioural segmentation.

Desire to understand the nature of the conflict over aerial 1080 motivated this research. Our intention was to understand the prevalence and relationships about salient beliefs related to 1080. That may, in turn, lead to “a better understanding of the underlying causes and levels of conflict [which] can inform more effective dialogue, research, and action related to invasive species” (Estévez et al., 2015, p.27). Estévez et al. conclude (p.28) “In situations without clear solutions (e.g. ideological or political based disputes), taking into account the problem’s social dimensions is even more important because technical and scientific information alone cannot resolve such issues”.

We have identified the levels of support and opposition in the New Zealand adult population to use of aerial 1080 poison. There are about even levels of support for and opposition to use of aerial 1080 in New Zealand. The modal view is neither support nor oppose its use, but with thick tails on either side of the mode. Polarization is stronger on banning use of 1080 with 15.7% of respondents strongly opposing a ban and 14.5% strongly supporting a ban.

We have assessed the relationship between relevant beliefs, personal attributes and individuals’ positions on use of aerial 1080 in New Zealand. There is strong agreement that possums, rats and stoats are a threat to native species and that possums spread TB to cattle. There is consensus that aerial 1080 is the cheapest way to kill pests, but its use conflicts with New Zealand’s clean and green image and is cruel. Priors were that opposition to 1080 would be negatively related with education, trust in science and government, and negative beliefs about outcomes of using 1080. We find that opponents of 1080 use are more likely to have negative views of 1080’s effectiveness and of its adverse effects, have lower education levels, live outside large cities, and lower levels of trust in government agencies.

Our research results indicate that effort to increase public acceptance of aerial 1080 could focus on provision of clear evidence on the effectiveness of 1080 in reducing possum, rat and stoat numbers and on building levels of trust in government agencies.

One puzzling result was noted – higher levels of trust in science is associated with increased likelihood of opposition to 1080. Further research is essential to examine more fully the relationship between belief in science and support for environmental and health policies including use of 1080.

Funding

Funding for this research was provided by Predator Free 2050 Ltd.

Competing Interests

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Horizon Research and Geoffrey Kerr. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Geoffrey Kerr and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Aley JP, Russell JC (2019) A survey of environmental and pest management attitudes on inhabited Hauraki Gulf islands. Science for Conservation Series, vol 336. New Zealand Department of Conservation
Ban 1080 Party (2016) Anti-1080 Facebook groups, websites, films/film clips. https://www.facebook.com/ban1080party/posts/anti-1080-facebook-groups-websites-filmsfilm-clipshere-is-a-list-of-anti-1080-fa/652159341618552/ (Accessed 17 December 2020)
Bauer MW, Allum N, Miller S (2007) What can we learn from 25-years of PUS research? Liberating and widening the agenda. Public Underst Sci 16:79–95
Benfield WF (2011) The third wave: Poisoning the land. Tross Publishing: Wellington
Benfield WF (2015) At war with nature: Corporate conservation and the industry of extinction. Wellington, Tross Publishing
Bidwell SR (2011) Talking about 1080: risk, trust and protecting our place. Master of Public Health thesis, University of Otago, Christchurch. http://hdl.handle.net/10523/2186
Bidwell S, Thompson L (2015) Place invaders: Identity, place attachment and possum control in the South Island West Coast of New Zealand. NZ Geogr 71:81–90. doi:10.1111/nzg.12083
Björnberg KE, Karlsson M, Gilek M, Hansson SO (2017) Climate and environmental science denial: a review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015. J Clean Prod 167:229–241
Blancke S, Boudry M, Pigliucci M (2017) Why do irrational beliefs mimic science? The cultural evolution of pseudoscience. Theoria 83:78–97
Dentith MRX (2018) The problem of conspiracism. Argumenta 3:327–343
Dentith MRX (2020) Debunking conspiracy theories. Synthese Published online 14 May 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-020-02694-0
Diethelm P, McKee M (2009) Denialism: what is it and how should scientists respond? Eur J Public Health 19:2–4
DOC (undated) 1080. Department of Conservation. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/methods-of-control/1080/ (accessed 17 December 2020)
Donnell H (2018) How NZ news livestream became overwhelmed by anti-1080 activists. The Spinoff. https://thespinoff.co.nz/media/23-08-2018/how-our-major-news-providers-became-overwhelmed-by-anti-1080-activists/ (Accessed 6 October 2020)
Drummond C, Fischhoff B (2017) Individuals with greater science literacy and education have more polarized beliefs on controversial science topics. PNAS 114:9587–9592
Eason C, Miller A, Ogilvie S, Fairweather A (2011) An updated review of the toxicology and exotoxicology of sodium fluoracetate (1080) in relation to its use as a pest control tool in New Zealand. NZ J Ecology 35:1–20
Eason CT, Shapiro L, Ogilvie S, King C, Clout M (2017) Trends in the development of mammalian pest control technology in New Zealand. NZ J Zoology 44:267–304. DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2017.1337645
EPA (2013) Five year review of the aerial use of 1080: 2008–2012. Environmental Protection Authority, Wellington
EPA (2020) 1080 use in Aotearoa New Zealand 2019: An annual report on the aerial operations, research, and incidents relating to 1080 use. Wellington: Environmental Protection Authority
ERMA (2008) Environmental Risk Management Authority Decision. Application for the reassessment of a hazardous substance under Section 63 of the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996. Name of substance(s): Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) and formulated substances containing 1080. Application Number: HRE05002. August 2007, amended August 2008. Environmental Risk Management Authority, Wellington, New Zealand. 215p https://www.epa.govt.nz/assets/FileAPI/hsno-ar/HRE05002/f7659614b3/HRE05002-062.pdf
Estévez RA, Anderson CB, Pizarro JC, Burgman MA (2014) Clarifying values, risk perceptions, and attitudes to resolve or avoid social conflicts in invasive species management. Cons Biol 29:19–30
Fairweather AAC, Broome KG, Fisher P (2014) Sodium Fluoroacetate Pesticide Information Review. Version 2014/1. Unpublished report docdm-25427. Department of Conservation, Hamilton, New Zealand, p 112
Fasce A, Picó A (2019) Science as a vaccine: the relation between scientific literacy and unwarranted beliefs. Sci Educ 28:109–125
Graf C, Graf S (2009) Poisoning Paradise: Ecocide New Zealand. Documentary. Festival version on YouTube (1:37:42). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQRuOj96CRs
Green W, Rohan M (2012) Opposition to aerial 1080 poisoning for control of invasive mammals in New Zealand: risk perceptions and agency responses. J Royal Society NZ 42:185–213
Hansford D (2016) Protecting Paradise. 1080 and the fight to save New Zealand's wildlife. Potton & Burton, Nelson
Hansson SO (2018) How connected are the major forms of irrationality? An analysis of pseudoscience, science denial, fact resistance and alternative facts. Metode Sci Stud J 8:125–131
Harper EE, Miller CA, Vaske JJ, Mengak, Bruno S (2016) Stakeholder attitudes and beliefs toward wild pigs in Georgia and Illinois. Wildl Soc Bull 40:269–273
Horn C, Kilvington M (2002) Māori and 1080. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research. http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/social/1080.asp
Hughey KFD, Kerr GN, Cullen R (2019) Public Perceptions of New Zealand’s Environment: 2019. EOS, Christchurch. http://dotnetrest.lincoln.ac.nz/O365flowClient/cache/sites/www-content/Lincoln%20WWW/Documents/LEAP/NRM/Public-Perceptions/perceptions_2019.pdf Ecology
Kannemeyer RL (2013) Public attitudes to pest control and aerial 1080 use in the Coromandel. MSc, University of Auckland. Auckland 209p
Kannemeyer RL (2017) A systematic review of attitudes to pest control methods in New Zealand. Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research, Auckland
Kelly L (2020) Duped! The true story behind Predator Free New Zealand. Les Kelly
Kerr GN, Hughey KFD, Cullen R (2016) Ethnic and Immigrant Differences in Environmental Values and Behaviors. Soc Nat Resour 29:1280–1295. DOI: 10.1080/08941920.2016.1195029
MacDonald EA, Balanovic J, Edwards ED, Abrahamse W, Frame B, Greenaway A, Kannemeyer R, Kirk N, Medvecky F, Milfont TL, Russell JC, Tomkins DM (2020) Public opinion towards gene drive as a pest control approach for biodiversity conservation and the association of underlying worldviews. Environ Comm. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2019.1702568
Madden F, McQuinn B (2014) Conservation’s blind spot: The case for conflict transformation in wildlife conservation. Bioll Cons 178:97–106
McQueen FMF (2017) The quiet forest: The case against aerial 1080. Tross Publishing: Wellington
Metag J, Schäfer MS (2018) Audience segments in environmental science communication: Recent findings and future perspectives. Environ Comm 12:995–1004
Mitchell C (2020) The conspiracists’ election: How the farthest fringes of politics are making a play for the centre. Stuff, 1 August 2020 https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/300070891/the-conspiracists-election-how-the-farthest-fringes-of-politics-are-making-a-play-for-the-centre (Accessed 6 October 2020)
NZOP (undated) Outdoors Party 1080 and other Vertebrate Toxins Policy. New Zealand Outdoors Party. https://www.outdoorsparty.co.nz/outdoors-party-1080-and-other-vertebrate-toxins-policy/ (Accessed 17 December 2020)
Nguyen CT (2018) Echo chambers and epistemic bubbles. Episteme pp.21 doi:10.1017/epi.2018.32
Pariser E (2011) The filter bubble: what the internet is hiding from you. Penguin Group, New York
PCE (2011) Evaluating the use of 1080: Predators, poisons and silent forests. Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment: Wellington. 85p
PCE (2013) Update Report. Evaluating the use of 1080: Predators, poisons and silent forests. Wellington, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, p 15
Peacock C (2018) 1080 campaign turns toxic. Radio New Zealand. 23 September 2018 https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/mediawatch/audio/2018663379/1080-campaign-turns-toxic (Accessed 6 October 2020)
Pietak AM (2011) A Critical Look at Aerial-Dropped, Poison-Laced Food in New Zealand’s Forest Ecosystems https://1080science.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Aerial-1080-Critical-Review_Pietak-Oct-26th-2011.pdf (Accessed 23 January 2020)
Pollard JC (2017) Response to the Department of Conservation’s reply to Aerial 1080 poisoning in New Zealand: reasons for concern”. https://1080science.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Response-to-DoC.pdf (Accessed 23 January 2020)
Robinson R (2017) The Killing Nation: New Zealand’s state-sponsored addiction to poison 1080. Off the Common, Amherst, USA
Russell JC, Innes JG, Brown PH, Byrom AE (2015) Predator-free New Zealand: Conservation country. Bioscience 65:520–525
Sharp RL, Larson LR, Green GT (2011) Factors influencing public preferences for invasive alien species management. Biol Cons 144:2097–2104
Sperber D, Clement F, Heintz C, Mascaro O, Mercier H, Origgi G, Wilson D (2010) Epistemic vigilance. Mind & Language 25:359–393
Spohr D (2017) Fake news and ideological polarization: Filter bubbles and selective exposure on social media. Bus Info Review 34:150–160
Sponarski CC, Vaske JJ, Bath AJ (2015) Differences in management action acceptability for coyotes in a national park. Wildl Soc Bull 39:239–247
Taber CS, Lodge M (2006) Motivated scepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. Am J Poli Sci 50:755–769
TBFree (2018) Using 1080 for possum control. https://ospri.co.nz/assets/Uploads/Documents/Using-1080-for-Possum-Control.pdf (Accessed 6 October 2020)
Tipa R (2008) Damned if we do, damned if we don't. Te Karaka: The Ngai Tahu Magazine 37:50–53
Vaske JJ (2018) Visualizing consensus in human dimensions data: The potential for conflict index₂. Hum Dimensions Wildl 23:83–89
Vaske JJ, Beaman J, Barreto H, Shelby LB (2010) An extension and further validation of the potential for conflict index. Leisure Sci 32:240–254
Whiting-O’Keefe QE, Whiting-O’Keefe PM (2007) Aerial monofluoroacetate in New Zealand’s forests: An appraisal of the scientific evidence. http://1080science.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Whiting-Okeefe-2.pdf (Accessed 23 January 2020)
Wilson D (2019) Notification of Determination of the Precise Question at an Indicative Referendum. Clerk of the House of Representatives. Notice number 2019-ps584, 7 February 2019. https://gazette.govt.nz/notice/id/2019-ps584 (Accessed 6 October 2020)
Wilson D (2020) Notification That Indicative Referendum Petition Has Lapsed. Clerk of the House of Representatives. Notice number 2020-ps1690, 17 April 2020. https://gazette.govt.nz/notice/id/2020-ps1690 (Accessed 6 October 2020)
Wilson C, Cannon J (2004) Community consultation processes for aerial 1080 applications. Science for Conservation 247. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. 52p

Download PDF

Editorial decision: Major revisions
15 May, 2023
Reviewers agreed at journal
28 Feb, 2023
Reviewers invited by journal
20 Jan, 2023
Editor invited by journal
19 Jan, 2023
Editor assigned by journal
08 Jan, 2023
First submitted to journal
08 Jan, 2023

You are reading this latest preprint version

Public perceptions of 1080 poison use in New Zealand

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1