Traditional institutions and local practices in the management of natural resources
In this study, various local institutions were found to exist. These institutions were broadly common to all the subunits of the study area. Accordingly, as a characteristic of their functional role, five major types of local institutions were identified in the study area.
Typology of practices and local institutions
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Livestock practices
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Labour practices
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Health practices
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Traditional Leaders
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Panchayats Organisation Institutions (Jirga)
1. Livestock-Based practices
Shepherd is a person who grazes the animals of others on a payment basis. The owner of a flock who employs the services of shepherds is known as the owner. The types of shepherds identified in this community are three kinds. Firstly, those who are owners of small flocks and take the animals of others on shepherds' contracts are part-time shepherds. Secondly, those who themselves are flock owners, but their family labour pool is big. So other families may hire them as shepherds, supplementing the family income. The third is a full-time shepherd of the big flock owners, and their families live and migrate with the flock.
2. Labour practices
Labour is allocated among family members based on sex and age, albeit the responsibilities explicitly allotted to each sex or age group are not always rigorously followed. Cooking, washing, carrying water, nurturing children, gathering wood, and creating woolen clothes are among household duties performed by women. Male adults are in charge of repairing equipment, maintaining tents, twining ropes, and caring for herding animals.
Labour work is the primary source of income for many families. The individual members also enter into several contractual arrangements to fill the labour requirements gap. The number of family workers typically depends upon the size of the family. Adult workers, i.e., males above fourteen in a family who can work as shepherds, constitute the male workforce.
3. Health practices
Health institutions readily rely on traditional medicine along with modern medicine. Apart from that, people contact occultists such as Maulavis, Faqirs and Sadhu-Sant, etc., for exorcise- incantation to heal health and economic problems. Their widespread acceptance is underlined and highlighted by the local people who discuss such matters with immense faith and confidence among other community members. Notwithstanding the scientific evidence in support of the healing effect of such practices, these continue to have great faith and psychological importance for the local people.
4. Traditional Leaders
Institutional leadership can be found in the study area, Mukkaddam (head of the community). In the old belief system, Mukkaddam was a person with a position of great prominence. He was always the prominent leader through which the community has channelized political, economic, and legal systems to solve the conflict. As a result, individuals, as well as organizations, resorted to them to have their problems resolved. Mostly, people agree to their decisions, preventing them from going to court. In rare cases, when people disagree with their choices, they may go the legal way. However, in the access to court, the barriers of geographical distance to the mainland and limitations of time and money, besides the lack of awareness of legal institutions, are enormous. For this reason, traditional leaders play an essential role in managing dispute settlement at the local level speedily and judiciously.
5. Panchayats Organisation Institutions ( Jirga )
The Gujjar Bakarwal society has an established Jirga system, i.e., Panchayats Organisation Institutions, an ancient institution in their culture. Jirga is the name of the place which is commonplace for the community and its leaders to sit together and resolve disputes. However, there is no general Jirga for the whole Gujjar Bakarwal tribe in the state; each Kafila (a big herding group comprising two or three sub-herding groups) has its separate Jirga. Jirga can resolve disputes among family members, neighbours, and other community members. Jirga has a significant influence on today’s government setup to settle the conflicts of their communities. Still, their functioning is usually limited to their own Kafila, which the Mukaddam leads. However, in some cases, when the Mukaddam has a massive influence in nearby communities, they may be invited to sit together and resolve the disputes of other Qabilas (Larger group as compared to Kafila) or inter-Qabila disputes. The formal hierarchy of groups and subgroups by which the Kafila are ordered into a tribe and through which their leaders exercise their administrative power and use of resources.
This section explains how transhumance and animals move through different landscapes and seasons.
Winter Pasture
This topographic zone ranges between 610 and 1220 meters above sea level and is a zone of Gujjar Bakarwal winter pastures. The area of human and animal migration has a central character. Families live in permanent locations, while shepherds graze their flocks within a 10 to 18-kilometer radius of their winter bases. The daily movements pertain to the operations of herding. The timing and directions of these movements are determined by every day. In the morning, they walk to the river to water the animals, and in the afternoon, they spread their livestock in the grasslands to graze. Typically, these small movements do not entail a change of location and are restricted in distance (Fig. 2).
Spring Pasture
The Gujjar Bakarwal of Jammu and Kashmir begin their annual spring migration from their winter resorts to their summer bases again in the last quarter of April. When the transhumance starts from the winter bases, the preparations for this migration equipment are repaired and settled in the account with local traders and farmers. One or two days before the departure, they pay a regular visit to the holy shrine of their ancestors. On the day of departure, they start early in groups of seven to ten families with all their household belongings. The remaining families follow these marching members after an interval of two to three days in groups.
These groups march daily, covering modest distances until they arrive at intervening pastures. After roughly seven to eight days of residing in different fields, the groups form a larger group. Then these large groups move together through the Pir Panjal Mountain passes, stopping only for rest and grazing. After crossing through the Pir Panjal Mountain zone, these marching groups stay two to three days on the fringes of the Kashmir valley. They prepare for the next journey, which will take them across Kashmir's valley. They march across Kashmir's valley on long marches with minimal stops. After crossing the Kashmir valley, they enter the side valleys (Parle Kashmir) and stay for five to ten days. The group member is divided into smaller groups and marches slowly in short marches until they arrive at summer destinations (Fig. 2).
Summer Pasture
During July, August, and September, they settle at their self-appointed pastures and graze their flock on the lush green grasses of the Great Himalayan ridges, which lie at an altitude of 3,000 to 4,500 meters and almost touch the snowline. During this time of year, the Gujjar Bakarwal engage in crucial economic and social activities (Fig. 2).
They spend their time producing Shailly (ropes and cords woven for their use to pack the tents and baggage) and other handicrafts in Dharas (shelter). They also spin wool material and weave homespun woolen fabrics. They forage for medicinal plants, hunt for food, and musk deer. Some go hunting and lumbering in the forests, while others work as tourist collies close to the resorts. Weddings and other religious and social celebrations are only two examples of the many enjoyable events that occur throughout the summer.
The late summer season is signaled by short migration towards the pastures on the slopes along the valley. This short-term migration in the summer is very different from the earlier migration. The families remain in their Dhara (plate-1) at their self-appointed summer pastures. Only a group of young shepherds pack up and organize this migration for a few days. They migrate some days around the northern edge of the valley slopes and return to their self-appointed resorts. This short trip’s motive is to use some good pastures within their reach.
Autumn Pasture
The autumn migration of the Gujjar Bakarwal starts in the last quarter of September to mid-November every year from their summer resorts to the winter bases. Before the journey begins from summer bases, they pack all materials two to three days before the departure. On the day of departure, they move in groups of five to ten households early in the morning and cross over the passes to the southern slopes of the Great Himalayan ranges facing the valley of Kashmir. The shepherds graze the animals for fifteen to twenty days on these slopes, just above the side valleys, where they have agricultural fields. Some male members of the families come down to the side valleys to harvest their fields and collect grains. Later, the animals are brought from these slopes to the side valleys. They prepare for two to three days for the next journey through the valley of Kashmir. The small groups unite to form a bigger group to cross the valley of Kashmir. They make long marches and very few halts till they reach the other side of the Kashmir valley as quickly as possible. After a rest of one or two days, they ascend the Pir-Panjal range, cross through the passes in long marches, and descend to the intervening pastures. On the intervening pastures, they graze their animals for ten to fifteen days; then, they gradually move to their winter bases (Fig. 2).
Climate changes and their effect on seasonality and cultural landscapes
The respondents have variously described the effects of the climate on livestock and cultural landscape. The time and intensity of snowfall in high pasture areas are two of the most important factors influencing the production of common nutrients in the grass. The pattern of snowfall in recent years has been unpredictable, the amount of snowfall that occurs each year has decreased, and the rate at which snow melts in the lower mountainous area is lower than it was in the past. According to the respondents described it:
I have been grazing cattle in this area for the last 35 years. I use the same route every year. I observed that the rainfall pattern has changed, due to which the grassland/pastures have been affected, which ultimately affects the grass’s growth, quality, and quantity. We have been grazing our animals in the same grassland for many years, and now we go to different pastures to find suitable herbs.
Respondents said there were water shortages in traditional water resources such as wells and rivers along seasonal migration routes. As one herder stated,
On the way to the highland pastures, nine different water sources require water for our livestock. When these water sources were first discovered, they contained a significant amount of water. Recently, two of the nine springs have stopped producing water, and the other five water springs are in the process of drying up gradually. Because there is not enough water, we must alter our travel plans and find a new place to camp for the night.
Table 1.1
Present weather and Ideal weather in the Pir-Panjal region
Seasons | English Month | Present weather (in 2019) | Ideal weather |
Summer | May to October | large raindrops, Continual rainfall at the start of the season and a clear sky, dewfall, fewer snowstorms | Infrequent but significant rain, cloudless skies, dew, and even snow at the end of the season (in some years). Extreme snowfall |
Winter | November to April | Decreased snowfall levels, drought, rising temperatures, and gusty winds near the season's end. | Less intense snowfall, a little rainfall in the earlier part of the day, rising temperatures, and stormy winds as the season ends. |
Furthermore, the increased presence of invasive weeds overtakes valuable grasses in lower-elevation areas and forests. Farmland is a climate-induced effect associated with higher temperatures and uneven rainfall that significantly impacts livestock grazing. One interviewee said: “Now, all farmland is covered with invasive grass, and we do not have any other herbs.” Other grass is also everywhere in the forests. Invasive grasses are replacing our traditional grasses.
Research participants reported that the incidence of livestock diseases has increased due to climate change. According to a herder respondent, livestock diseases are on the continued rise as the result of extreme heat and cold. In the winter, many sheep and goats die of pneumonia. They are mainly located far from veterinary centers, and there is no assistance from the government or other institutions to take care of their livestock. To keep this profession going, they need veterinary help and animal insurance.
In recent years, there has been an increase in medicine used for treating livestock diseases. There are new livestock diseases: lumpy skin disease, mouth, and foot diseases have become widespread, and these diseases have never been experienced. They must provide medicine for their goats and sheep every six months. One agriculture services provider describes the increase in livestock diseases in mountainous areas: In the past, livestock diseases were common in lower altitude areas, and there were not numerous diseases in the mountainous regions. Nowadays, many animal deaths are happening in mountainous areas due to conditions.
Dynamics of economic practices and local traditional institutions
Animal husbandry, agriculture, and trade were and continue to be the primary means by which people in the Pir Panjal area support their livelihood. These occupations directly connect and the changing seasons. Every house raises animals, such as buffaloes, horses, oxen, cows, sheep, and goats. Families shift their animals to various altitude meadows according to the seasons. In the winter, they bring their cattle down to the settlements and the places around them and then shift them to the low-altitude pasture lands in a lower zone nearby (plate 2). They move all their animals up to the higher-elevation pastures during the warm summer.
Access to communication, development initiatives such as transportation, road construction, and the influence of markets on livelihood diversification are some of the economic changes that have taken place in the area under consideration. In upland villages, a significant change in subsistence and traditional farming has been reported. Due to falling income, interest in growing crops on the hillsides where maize, wheat, and barley are grown has declined.
There is no benefit to agriculture in non-irrigated areas. Following the decline in livestock numbers, there is a shortage of labour and compost, and the precipitation pattern is uncertain. Therefore, they abandoned the cultivation land in the highlands and are now cultivating on the valley floor with irrigation facilities. More than 40% of agricultural land has been abandoned.
People will have to buy food as they move away from subsistence agriculture. As a result, people will have to diversify their earnings by working outside of subsistence farming. Even though selling their products is the only alternative that can lead to sustainable agriculture in the highlands, they still require further support. They seek support for the diversification and value addition of products based on livestock rearing. They require support with pasture management and marketing aid for their wool and meat products. Furthermore, some of the young have gone overseas to work in Saudi Arabia, the United States, Kuwait, Korea, Japan, Europe, and the Middle East.
Recommendations for Policy-makers
Our research found that transhumance, labour, and livestock practices contribute heavily to Gujjar Bakarwal communities' livelihoods and symbolize their cultural identity. The traditional institution, local practices, such as Jirga (Panchayats organization), the system was found to be a “connector” that binds Gujjar Bakarwal by creating opportunities of mutual interest, trust, and reciprocity to facilitate labour and livestock practices. As per the traditional belief system, Mukkaddam had a prominent role in the political, economic, and legal systems where people and organizations approached him to solve local problems. People usually agreed to decisions made here, thereby avoiding the court. People who disagree with the decisions made here may sue. Geographic distance to the mainland, time and money limitations, and lack of legal institution understanding are considerable hurdles to court access; therefore, approaching Mukaddam was the favoured mode of dispute resolution economically, quickly, and fairly. In addition, they have a strategy for managing local commons based on traditional user rights. However, it was found that presently Panchayat Organisation system has replaced the traditional institutional systems, because of which the social fiber of the community has undergone a significant transformation. Though Panchayats are quite effective in dispute resolution, other roles of traditional institutions have been wiped away, such as a ‘mediator’ or ‘connector’ in selling or buying livestock and solutions of inter and intra-community disputes by way of simple, informal discussions. Now people tend to approach courts increasingly, and social and cultural connectivity has weakened over time. There is also a lack of supportive government policies to manage pasturelands effectively or to encourage pastoral nomads to carry on with their traditions. For these reasons, people in the study area need to reinstate the traditions, institutions, and practices for better and hassle-free functioning of the Gujjar Bakarwal communities.
Another issue reported by the study participants is the massive and unplanned road construction which results in the degradation of pastures and increased landslides. Though it provides the facility to move quickly with the livestock using motor vehicles yet, it has a flipside to it. When people and livestock marches to the pasturelands, they reach there in a month without overburdening a small area, thereby avoiding conflicts between herders and residents of pasturelands. Marching practice is consistent with the sustainability ethos, whereas transportation using vehicles is not sustainable in more ways than one. Here also, the study participants expressed a need to reinstate the traditional practices.
Another challenge to the sustenance of the Gujjar-Bakarwal community is posed by the socioeconomic and demographic shifts in the Pir-Panjal range, which have resulted in the growing importance of the market economy. This has encouraged the diversification of means of subsistence into fields other than the agricultural and livestock industries. While this is, in and of itself, a welcome improvement in people's livelihoods, it has also created a labor-shortage situation. The changes also encourage the local community's internal and external movement, increasing the flow of remittances in the rural economy. However, for these reasons, the upcoming generation shows very little interest in the activities associated with pastoral life and prefers alternate occupations, which leads to a labour shortage for agriculture and livestock management. Therefore, to continue their work, it is required that the government frames supportive policies and institutional provisions should be developed for human and animal insurance, veterinary care, and grazing rights. There is a lack of private players in this field in the study area; therefore, government initiatives will be beneficial.
The participants in the research region have reported that climate change has had an impact on their mountain ecosystems and livelihoods. This is the case even though there is insufficient climate data available to confirm the effects of climate change on meadows and cattle. Climate change impacts include rare snowfall and rainfall, rangeland degradation, increasing water stress due to gradually drying up water sources, increased animal diseases, and the spread of invasive species onto grazing pastures. Because the climate change impact is anticipated to be more significant in the mountains compared to other locations, the projected scenarios point to a future that will become increasingly difficult for the Gujjar Bakarwal communities. Thus, there is a need to undertake a systematic study of the impact of climate change in the Pir-Panjal range and take corrective measures urgently.
Meanwhile, support should be provided to the local communities to face the adverse effect of climate change. Grazing areas may be developed. More freedom may be provided to the herders for grazing in protected areas such as reserved forests.