As a consequence of rapid globalization and tremendous industrialization, the number of vehicles is proliferating on the road exponentially in recent times 1,2. After a specific period, the vehicle becomes unfit for the road and generates scrap automobiles proportionally 3,4. The vehicles that have been retired from service and are no longer in use, end-of-life vehicles (ELVs), ELVs impose numerous threats in several aspects of society; hence proper handling of ELVs is paramount of importance 5,6. ELV recycling has received enormous momentum. It offers excellent potential to extract as much value from ELVs and sustainable hazardous waste disposal 7–9. Proper and efficient ELV recycling enables the recovery of a significant quantity of different materials, including Iron, Aluminium, Lead, Copper, Glass, and several rare materials 10–12. Therefore, ELV recycling is regarded as a secondary source of materials that can preserve the finite natural resources in this world 13,14. Besides the secondary source of materials, proper ELV recycling disposes of harmful and toxic materials in ELVs in an environmentally sound way that can reduce pollution and landfills 15–17.
The burgeoning automobile industry in India manufactures and yields a growing number of vehicles to society every year. Figure 1 demonstrates the annual production of automobiles by the Indian automobile sector from 2013 to 2021 18. The phenomenal expansion of India's automotive industry requires an enormous amount of distinct, precious, and scarce materials to expedite the ongoing development 19,20. The dramatic decline of primary resources causes struggles to maintain a steady supply of raw materials for the automobile industry 21. As ELVs incorporate a plethora of distinct ranges of materials, the recovery of materials from ELVs can assist significantly in maintaining the steady supply of materials to the material-thirsty Indian automobile sector 22–24. ELVs also contain a significant number of hazardous substances that are triggering environmental degradation 25–27. Thus, the proper and effective ELV recycling system has dramatic potential in terms of materials recovery and mitigation of ecological degradation 28–30.
The recycling of ELVs in India is at the nascent stage and is highly chaotic and poorly managed because of the absence of legal and technical frameworks 31. Consequently, informality in this sector prevails, which causes the bleeding of resources to waste and aggravates environmental quality 32. The effective and practical legal and technical frameworks for ELV recycling can expedite the value extraction from ELVs in environmentally friendly ways. Countries like Japan, the USA, the EU, and China, are toiling to establish a sustainable ELV recycling system and have enacted practical regulations to govern the ELV recycling system 33–36. As a result, they have evinced significant advancement in establishing a sustainable ELV recycling system with an excellent material recovery and recycling rate because they adopt sophisticated technology to enhance material extraction rates 37. The materials recycling and recovery rate are limited in the sector of ELV recycling in India; ELV recycling in India can only recycle certain parts 38. A significant value is squandering landfills because of the absence of advanced and cutting-edge technologies. ELV incorporates hazardous fluid and solid and gaseous substances; appropriate disposal of these detrimental and deleterious compounds is instrumental to protecting the environment and cherishing sustainable development 39–41. As informality is predominant in the sector of ELV recycling in India, the de-pollution process of ELV does not adhere to environmentally friendly standards, which contributes substantially to environmental degradation 31. The stringent legal framework, together with practical guidelines, can enhance materials recovery rates and reduce potential greenhouse gas emissions, not to mention road and vehicle safety.
Little research sheds light on the recycling of ELVs in India. As informality is prevalent in the sector of ELV recycling and their practices do not adhere to proper guidelines 42, it necessitates more explorative research to develop a thorough understanding of their current techno-socio-economic and environmental practices. The absence of real-world data for the authority is stymieing rational decision-making and developing and implementing any subsequent regulatory and legal framework that succinctly embraces the techno-socio-economic and environmental aspects; it warrants more in-depth investigation on real ground. Identifying and assessing the critical factors and potential of the recycling of ELVs in India is crucial for providing future directives toward sustainability in ELV recycling; the lack of investigation in this facet demands deeper insights. The literature analysis, field investigation, and stakeholder interaction reveal that the absence of a practical framework thwarts India's ELV recycling sustainability 43. The inadequacy of insightful recommendations that steer stakeholders toward a greater recycling rate and authority to implement legal and regulatory frameworks hinders the sustainability of ELV recycling. This issue prompts a thorough investigation.
The mentioned research inadequacies and knowledge deficiencies regarding the recycling of ELVs have inspired the current investigation. The present study evaluates the sustainability of India's ELV recycling system from techno-socio-economic and environmental aspects as a significant step to advancing understanding of the current practice and evaluating performance and assessing progress. It offers insights and yields critical real-world data that may assist the authority in rational decision-making and developing and implementing any subsequent regulatory and legal framework that succinctly embraces the techno-socio-economic and environmental aspects. This investigation has performed the Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat (SWOT) analysis to evaluate ELV recycling in the long-term viability and assess the critical factors and potential. This investigation succinctly embraces the techno-socio-economic and environmental aspects of sustainability that might significantly influence society holistically. This study's findings may assist India's authority in introducing an appropriate regulatory framework and strategic decision-making.
ELV Recycling. ELV recycling system is very intricate that involves numerous complicated processes beginning from collecting ELVs and ending with automotive shredder residue (ASR) treatment 44,45. Figure 2 demonstrates a practical framework for ELV recycling 31. After collecting ELVs, legal paperwork needs to complete for recording details as evidence. After that, ELVs undergo depollutioning operation; in this stage, several pollutants and harmful substances, including engine oil, brake oil, coolant, and air conditioning gases, are disposed of in an environmentally sound way. In the next step, dismantling the operation, numerous recyclable and reusable parts are recovered from ELVs, such as the engine, gear system, chassis, and wheels; maximum material recovery from ELVs occurs in this stage 46. Consequently, the remaining car hulk undergoes shredding operation for further value recovery. Shredding operation leaves automotive shredder residue that is metal-rich and contains a high calorific value 47. Therefore, proper treatment of ASR is instrumental for higher material recovery and recycling rates 48. Figure 2 elucidates different steps of ASR treatment for further material recovery. After further value recovery from ASR, a portion remains untreated as complete recycling of ELVs is practically not feasible; this portion disposes of at landfills. Many developed countries, like Japan and the EU, are employing sophisticated and modern technology for higher value recovery from ASR and reducing landfills as much as possible 49.
ELV recycling in India. The recycling of ELVs is in the nascent phase and is very disorganized and poorly managed in India 42. Figure 3 illustrates the ELV recycling practice in India, both formal and informal sectors. The informal sector has dominated the ELV recycling sector in India since the beginning, while an insignificant number of formal ELV recycling facility centers have been emerging recently 31. As the informal sector is solely driven by economic gain, the operations for value recovery from ELVs disregard the environmental impact, which aggravates environmental quality. In the informal sector, after perfunctory depollutioning operation, through dismantling, certain specific parts are recovered from ELVs as the value recovery; after that remaining car hulk is sold to the shredding company for further value recovery as the informal sector lacks modern and sophisticated equipment and techniques, it leads the draining of resources to waste. Whereas the formal ELV recycling facility centers are well-organized and equipped with modern and sophisticated equipment and techniques compared to the informal sector, even though the number of formal ELV recycling facility centers is insignificant. In the formal ELV recycling facility center, the operations for value recovery from ELVs adhere to standard guidelines; after dismantling operation for parts recovery from ELVs, ELVs undergo the shredding process for further value recovery, which leaves ASR, ASR is metal-rich and carry a high calorific value, partial ASR treatment is carried out for further value recovery; however, the landfill is relatively high compared to developed nations.