The research confirmed that there are multiple factors that impact on inactive CYPs’ habits and behaviours, which determine levels of engagement in PE lessons and participation in extra-curricular sport and PA. These habits and behaviours are reported according to CYP’s motivations, capabilities, and opportunities towards PA within schools.
Motivation
Sport and PA preferences
There was a high degree of variability amongst PE teachers who described sport and PA preferences amongst all students in their school. These preferences differed across schools, between genders and amongst different demographic groups including different ethnic groups and cultural backgrounds. The finding that preferences are subject to significant variance, highlights the need to adopt an ‘individual’ approach to identifying motivations and overcoming barriers to PA. Some schools use student voice activities to identify sporting preferences across school, which in some cases were targeted specifically at the inactive.
Depends on the fad at the time. Particularly interested in cricket due to their cultural background. If you name a sport from A to Z we have tried it at some point. Within this school they do prefer more traditional sports.
When reflecting on inactive students, PE teachers stated that in general terms individual sports and / or fitness-based activities, particularly amongst girls, were more popular. Whereas for those students who are more active or who may be described as 'sporty', traditional team sports were preferred. PE teachers reported that CYP like having a variety of activities and some element of choice in their PE lessons.
De-motivated, unsure of activities on offer, not enjoying team sports as much.
Lethargic. Bad diet. Don't like team sports.
Depending on the student…students that enjoy PE and are naturally more sporty, they like the traditional things. With the less sporty they like alternative activities / less traditional.
PE teachers also described the sports and physical activities that inactive students tended not to enjoy, and once more there were differences across schools, within different demographic groups, and amongst different ethnic groups. One particular aspect that CYP didn’t enjoy, according to teachers, was larger team games or whole year group activities, including cross-country. Traditional team sports were viewed by PE teachers as being disliked by many inactive CYP.
[They] dislike team traditional sports. Much rather play individual sports, but school don't have the opportunity to provide these as the curriculum doesn't offer enough time so have to focus on team sports which are on the curriculum.
[The] less active don't like football and the pressure of being involved in team sports as much i.e. picked on from not playing a part in a team game. Girls don't like being in the spotlight once they're a little bit older, they're self-conscious.
Disengagement
PE teacher’s perceptions were varied when describing the characteristics of inactive CYP. Generally, inactive CYP were described by PE teachers as being more likely to be female, overweight or obese and image (i.e. body and appearance) conscious. Over 40% of teachers described the inactive as being ‘disengaged / not motivated or reluctant’ to take part in sport or PA. For CYP in Key Stage 4, a lack of time was a common factor due to academic pressure and therefore coursework and exam revision were prioritised. Some PE teachers described pupils disinterest in PE and PA as being due to them prioritising time to using digital technology. Generally, boys were more interested in computer games, and / or watching TV, and girls were more interested in spending their time using social media or communicating with friends either in person or online.
Students that prefer computers and social media are quieter individuals and less co-ordinated so they are challenged when they do something physical.
[The] influence of technology has made a difference to CYP. 'Why play sport when we can play a game on a computer?'
A concern raised by PE teachers as to why inactive CYP disengage with all sport, is due to past negative experiences of sport in primary school fuelling feelings of fear or anxiety, with some students unable to self-regulate during sessions. Teachers described how habits are developed at an early age, and their experience of PE at primary school had an important role in their subsequent participation in secondary school. As the primary school curriculum is very much centred around team sports, this suggests that earlier experiences of team sports, may have contributed to disengagement in secondary school. These negative experiences may have had an impact on their physical or psychological capability, because of their reflective motivation to participate in sport or PA.
I asked one child the other day why he didn't like PE. He had a bad experience of PE at primary school which he is still carrying with him.
Capability
PE teachers often described the inactive as being of lower physical capability, with any difference in ability often amplified in a team sport setting. Some PE teachers also reported that some students did not like to do PE in mixed ability groups or mixed sex groups, as they did not want to be seen participating in front of people of a better ability, or in front of the opposite sex. Their physical capability was therefore influencing the motivation they felt through participating in these types of sessions. Conversely, a teacher also commented that CYP who were more capable would become frustrated if they were grouped with less able or less motivated CYP, creating ill feeling amongst peers, whilst other CYP did not like having to participate with peers from outside of their friendship groups.
These factors have also led to some schools to make a shift in provision to include fitness-based activities including circuit training and classes such as Zumba, yoga and aerobics. Many PE teachers highlighted that these activities had been successful in engaging the inactive in their school. They stated that a lower skill level was required to perform these activities and that often these activities were being performed individually rather than in groups, helping those who were self-conscious. Other alternative activities had also been used to help the inactive habituate to PA and improve capability.
Some CYP prefer team sports as a general rule, and non-mainstream sports becoming favourite activities i.e. trampolining, learning and improving/progress quickly whereas they feel miles behind in other sports i.e. football. Non-mainstream sports, often on level playing field and that's where they their progress and enjoyment comes.
PE teachers reported that there were many students that lacked psychological capability, partly due to their lower physical capability leading to lower confidence in their abilities to participate effectively and this was more prominent in those students that were either obese or overweight. Teachers reported that they might be reluctant to take part due to a fear that they wouldn't be able to perform effectively. This applied to a range of activities but was more apparent in team sports because of the nature of competition and performing in groups. For example, their ability levels compared to other CYP could be exposed to a whole group of peers in a team sport environment.
In some cases, due to their weight, PE teachers perceived that students might not have enough energy, or sufficient mobility, and therefore may find some activities very difficult. Body image was also a concern raised by PE teachers, which was not exclusive to overweight/obese CYP. As one PE teacher described, comparing themselves to other more 'sporty' or physically capable students may reinforce feelings of inadequacy amongst overweight or obese students.
Mental barrier and fear of taking part and fear of failure relates to the lack of belief that they can do well and fear of what class they may be in. That's why targeted interventions work best because students may not feel inadequate. Sometimes you want to be able to straight talk to kids - we are not aware of how we engage and have the conversation with obese people and how do we work with parents?
There were reported issues in some schools around bullying of overweight and obese students, and it was suggested that this might be heightened in PE, if students could not perform or were seen as a 'weak link'.
Peer pressure and bullying is a problem. Can feel isolated if they have a bad experience in a team because they are maybe not as good at certain activities. Problems with body image, different changing rooms help.
Less pressure on them when doing individual activity rather than team sports which often create added pressure.
Motivations and particular insecurities held by CYP were reported around both the preparation and action of performing PA. These include insecurities around being sweaty and the effects on the body of exercise, wearing specific PE kit, performing and being judged by others. CYP were also described as becoming less interested in sport and PA as they got older due to an increase in social pressures and concerns around body image and may be more likely to be influenced by social media / peer pressures and consequently they begin to become more concerned with appearance and image.
There are negative physical and psychological factors which may limit a CYP’s capability to perform an activity, as well as limit their own perception of their actual capability, which may affect their subsequent confidence, enjoyment and motivation to continue to do that activity in future. It was universally accepted by PE teachers in this study, that the inactive need support to develop psychological and physical capability but there are limited capacity, time and resource to provide the required support.
Opportunity
Curricular and extra-curricular opportunities
There continues to be a desire amongst PE teachers to further widen curricular and extra-curricular opportunities to provide students with a greater variety of different types of sport and PA. These include team sports such as dodgeball, but are more likely to include individual, adventure sports and fitness-based activities which may closely relate to each individuals social opportunity or reflective motivations. PE Teachers expressed a range of concerns about the current content of both curriculum PE and extra-curricular activity. Some suggested that a lack of choice and / or a focus on team sports in some schools, limited the options for those students that were less engaged and less interested in competitive sport.
It's the same core of students that engage with everything. We want to inspire others to get involved. We have tried climbing and trampolining away from traditional / team sports.
Finding activities that they enjoy doing, a lot of them don't like the traditional team sports of football etc, so it's breaking down some of the barriers that they can enjoy PE because there are lots of different activities that they can do, that's our main focus at the moment.
Students should also be able to participate at a suitable level with others of similar capability, although this is often a challenge for PE teachers, as in some cases there was a restriction on staff time to be able to run a range of extra-curricular activities, let alone provide this level of support to students.
Having time to do this as we are quite a small team. Most staff do 4 or 5 times a week after school and we have lots of other whole-school work to do. Difficulty to plan sometimes and do activities outside of school.
Our PE Staff have core teaching responsibility, clubs and coaching sessions, plus other duties within the school that teachers have to do. We have little time to do the smaller more focused activities needed to engage students, giving students individual attention and one to one time is difficult.
Parental engagement and support were regarded as a factor in influencing CYP's participation. PE Teachers highlighted that parents from lower socio-economic groups were also likely to have low activity levels themselves, and a lack of understanding of the potential benefits of PA at home was associated with a lack of support or encouragement for their CYP to be involved. It was clear that inactive CYP motivations were influenced by the social opportunity presented by their parents, which may stem from a poor experience of PE when they attended school or other negative experiences of sport and PA. Consequently, this may lead to the inactive having less opportunity and interest to participate in team sports outside of school time. Some teachers described a lack of understanding at home of the potential benefits of PA, and therefore a lack of support or encouragement for their CYP to be involved. Team sport participation outside of school is often reliant on CYP that have parents who are supportive, engaged and willing to both transport and support their child before, during and after sessions and therefore the inactive appear less likely to benefit.
Some students come from disadvantaged homes with low income so we provide kit so that isn't a problem. Mostly students who do not engage purely because they don't like it and their parents do not see it as valuable and do not support them.
Other parental influences included their encouragement and support of their CYP participating, and whether they were willing or able, to pay for and / or transport their CYP to extra-curricular sessions. Some teachers highlighted that however proactive the school was in trying to engage CYP, if their parents were not supportive of their child, then there was very little that the school could do to support.
When you meet parents, [it is] all 'I hated PE at school'. Their attitude is already affecting their child regarding fitness and health, the inactive and overweight ones all start at home.
The social inequalities which exist in deprived areas is also a further barrier to participation. PE teachers reported a range of challenges for CYP to access sports outside of school due to anti-social behaviour, cost and poor transport links which represent wider system failures.
The area is quite mixed, not a place where parents will want kids out late. There are football clubs/training sessions that run a bit later, but access to them isn't there - too far away and time an issue...but support needed for the school students to get them to and from.
Teachers reported that a key factor which limits engagement and participation is a lack of opportunities available for CYP to be active within their local communities. PE teachers commented that in the areas around their schools there is a lack of facilities such as parks and green spaces, sports centres and gyms, and also a lack of specific sessions or activities aimed at CYP. They noted a need for more sessions targeted at CYP, including less competitive options and more non-traditional activities to appeal to the inactive.
There isn't anything for CYP in the area. There is no sports centre, no facilities. There is nothing for them, which is why they either go home and watch TV and play on the computer, or they turn to antisocial behaviour, out of boredom. The facilities and the culture of the community need to change.
Additional constraints may be experienced in deprived areas, including more pronounced financial constraints, difficulties with transport and safety concerns in some areas. Furthermore, the nature of the local environment and context often reinforces unhealthy behaviours, such as the dominance of takeaway / fast food restaurants offering low-cost food which lacks nutritional value and limits healthy options.
Some PE teachers were adamant that any external investment for opportunities to participate in sport or PA outside of school should be focussed on widening participation.
Targeted funding to community organisations - needs to be spent on minority sports or groups that don't engage in traditional mainstream sports, so a shift to some non-traditional sports i.e. judo, dodgeball, rock climbing etc.
Pupil preferences
The obesity agenda and drive to support CYP to be more active and healthier has also contributed to a shift in the type of activities being delivered in deprived schools. As mentioned previously, PE teachers described an interest in fitness-based PA amongst the inactive and particularly girls. Increasingly, gym and fitness sessions were also being described as ‘popular’ due to their non-competitive nature, as well as the focus on improving body shape, fitness and health. PE Teachers gave examples of students improving their physical health and fitness through these sessions. They also described how these types of activity were important because there was a greater likelihood of students continuing to participate in these activities after they left school, in comparison to some types of team sports. They acknowledged the importance of introducing activities that could be sustained individually across the life course to establish PA as a way of life. Equally this trend promotes individual activities which CYP can do in their own space in their own time.
With them being girls, we have to use fitness, gym, introducing things that we know girls like to do. We recently got a disco ball which we are using with circuit training - turn down the lights, put the disco ball on, turn up the music. This is the type of stuff we have to do to engage them. And it works! Most of this is for KS4 as they are leaving school soon and we need to get them engaged in these types of fitness so that they have been introduced to this and might join a gym or go to a fitness class as an adult.
They want to be left alone doing something they are confident at which points to individual sports rather than team sports.
Team sports did not appear to be championed in this regard, even though the literature highlights the many health and fitness benefits of playing team sports. Although this shift has been partly driven by students, there was no evidence of schools aiming to counter some of these perceptions or gender stereotypes. Certainly, team sports have developed in recent years to be more inclusive and provide different formats (i.e. walking football) to promote lifelong participation and cater to people of different ages. It is apparent that there is further work required in schools to ensure that team sports cater for the inactive.
A shift has also occurred in schools to promote activities which are deemed to be more fun rather than competitive. PE teachers reported that some inactive students did not like the competitive element of team sports, and as a result, some schools described an increased emphasis on the fun elements of PE, rather than on competition.
The lunch clubs work well with the younger age groups, they can come and play and choose what they want to do each day. Relaxed environment focused on fun rather than competition.
Going with what the students want rather than what we can provide - non-competitive, don't play against other schools, work together as a group, building their confidence...offer what they want and link that in with the curriculum.
There is no suggestion that competitive sport is not fun, but many factors including the way in which team sports are delivered, and the preferences and personalities of the inactive, may influence how these CYP perceive or experience such activities. These assumptions could be further fuelling the perception that team sports are not suitable forms of activity for the inactive.
COM-B and TDF analysis
In total 21 barriers were identified from the perspective of PE teachers that are preventing CYP from achieving recommended government guidelines for physical activity. These include individual barriers which reflect the physical and psychological capability of the inactive as well as motivational factors. There are also social and environmental barriers which require wider system changes. Table 1 presents these barriers alongside facilitators for change presenting relevant intervention functions, policy functions and behaviour change tools to be considered for future behaviour change interventions.
[INSERT] Table 1: COM-B and TDF
Table 2 shows the aggregate total of intervention functions and policy functions defined by the COM-B and Behaviour Change Wheel that are required to provide a broad understanding of where behaviour change interventions should be targeted in schools. The most recorded intervention functions were ‘enablement’ (14) and ‘environmental restructuring’ (12). For policy functions, the most recorded were ‘guidelines’ (14) and ‘communication / marketing’ (13).