The author aims at exploring and assessing the identity crises amongst tribals due to development interventions. In particular, the schemes of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan and Poshan Abhiyan, which deal with education and health, respectively are being examined and discussed. The methodology included visiting the selected Aanganwadi Centres (AWCs) and exploring the challenges and gap areas in implementation of the programs amongst Koyas, Chenchus and Lambadas. Case studies were collected through mixed-method approach and analysis of narratives was done to draw conclusions.
The study area was Gudur Mandal in Telangana state which has scattered population belonging to Tribal communities namely Koyas, Chenchus and Lambadas.
Development Paradigm
In common parlance, development is to be understood as a process that creates growth and progress and leads to addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. In today’s time, the main concern is to have a “sustainable” development, wherein changes or additions in the above mentioned sectors is envisaged without damaging the resources of the environment. It is high time that the framework of development be re-interpreted keeping in mind the current flow of discourse. Empirical experiences to taken note of. For the last seventy-five years, the government has been working towards social development.
Sen (2009) contends, however, that the growth of the social sector has intrinsic worth since it will improve people's talents, opportunities, and freedom, which in turn will improve their well-being and quality of life. Sen’s theories on development place a strong emphasis on the value of enhancing people's skills and freedoms as opposed to solely emphasising economic progress and material welfare. He contends that development should be seen as a multifaceted process that encompasses social, cultural, and political components in addition to economic and material ones. In this regard, social sector growth is regarded as a crucial component of overall human progress and development. However, when one refers to social problems, one has to take cognisance of social processes as well. Addressing them involves looking at the social exclusion that comes as a cultural practice in the Indian historical context.
The governments made an attempt through various schemes and programs to address the social concerns, especially directed towards the vulnerable and the marginalised. Significant disparities in spending exist in the health sector across classes, regions, and gender. A assessment of laws and programmes reveals the well-known truth that the standard of care in the public healthcare system has declined. The poor cannot afford the private health system because of high costs.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan
SSA mandates on the other hand, free education for children until 14 years of age under the Right to Education Act. Education is indeed essential to the practice of democracy (Dreze and Sen, 2002). The emphasis on universalization ensures that no person is marginalised and that everyone has access to education, which is also regarded as a birthright. There have been various Constitutional, legal and national statements for Universalization of Elementary Education. The constitutional mandate of 1950 states “the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of'14 years.” Before we reach the twenty-first century, it must be assured that all children up to the age of 14 receive free and obligatory education of adequate quality, according to the National Policy on Education from 1986. The cause of Universal Elementary Education (UEE) has been frequently supported by the Constitution, laws, and official national statements. UEE should be undertaken in a mission mode with a holistic and convergent approach, with an emphasis on the compilation of District Elementary Education Plans for UEE, according to the National Committee’s Report on UEE (1999). Despite all of these efforts, the UEE target could only be partially met, and a huge number of kids fell into the category of the underprivileged.
The Indian government proposes the Right to Education Act (RTE) as a component of the Universal Education Program, which delivers excellent education to children (6–14 years old) while bridging the gender, social, and regional gaps, as part of the flagship Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan (SSA) programme. Our constitution has established the foundation for universalizing elementary education, which will strengthen the social fabric by distributing the same benefits to all socioeconomic strata. All children between the ages of 6 and 14 are entitled to free and compulsory education as a Fundamental Right under Article 21 which was added to the Constitution by the 86th Amendment Act of 2002. The follow-up legislation envisioned by article 21-A is represented by the Right to Education Act (RTE) 2009. The salient features of the RTE Act 2009 as per the MHRD website are:
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Right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a neighbourhood school.
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It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
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It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.
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It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.
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It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.
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It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
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It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
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It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition,
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It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centered learning. (http://mhrd.gov.in/rte)
Policymakers have struggled with low enrolment and high dropout rates for a very long time. The frequency is especially high among girls, kids from marginalised groups, aboriginal peoples, immigrants, and people with impairments. No matter the kind, level, or severity of their disability, SSA ensures that every kid with special needs receives a pertinent and excellent education. A zero rejection policy has been implemented as a result, which states that no child with special needs should be refused the chance to enrol in school, get a respectable education, or be instructed in an environment that is accommodating to their learning needs.
Poshan Abhiyaan
Poshan Abhiyaan was launched with much fanfare in 2018 in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan by the Hon’ble Prime Minister. It envisages emphasis on nutritional status of adolescent girls, pregnant women, lactating mothers and children from 0–6 year’s age. The target of the mission is to bring down stunting in children 0–6 years of age from 38.4–25% by 2022. It also aims to reduce anaemia among women and adolescent girls in the age group of 15–49 years and reduce low birth weight (World Bank Overview).
As per the Overview document, the POSHAN Abhiyaan intends to achieve its goals by focusing on: (i) mobile-based information technology tools for improved service delivery and monitoring to facilitate impact; (ii) multi-sectoral planning and monitoring actions from the state to block level for improved nutrition outcomes; (iii) capacity building of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) functionaries on nutrition counselling of pregnant women and mothers of children up to two years of age; (iv) community mobilisation and behaviour change communication; and (v) providing performance-based incentives for community nutrition and health workers, and states.
Figure 1 here.
Tribal health in India is a matter of grave concern as the health status of tribal communities is significantly lower compared to the general population or the mainstream population. Some of the states that have high tribal population also have high incidence of malnutrition. The major challenges faced by tribal communities in terms of health include:
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Lack of access to healthcare facilities: Many tribal areas are located in remote and inaccessible regions and hamlets which do not have proper roads and transport facilities. This makes it difficult for people to access healthcare facilities.
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Lack of awareness: Tribal communities often lack awareness about healthcare and preventive measures, which makes them more susceptible to diseases. They have their own world views and often do not approve of outside interventions.
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Poverty: Poverty is a major barrier to accessing healthcare for tribal communities. Many tribal communities live below the poverty line and cannot afford the cost of healthcare services. They are financially challenged and have to make choice when it comes to expenditure.
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Malnutrition: Tribal communities are often affected by malnutrition, which weakens their immune system and makes them more susceptible to diseases.
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Limited availability of healthcare personnel: Shortage of healthcare personnel in tribal areas and hamlets makes it difficult for people to access medical services. The Primary Health Centres are not well-equipped and the staff are generally absent or not trained up-to-date.
The Indian government has taken several steps to improve the health of tribal communities, such as setting up primary healthcare centers, providing health services throug mobile clinics, and launching health awareness campaigns. However, there is still much to be done to ensure that tribal communities have access to quality healthcare and are able to lead healthy lives.
Malnutrition is a major issue facing tribal communities in India. It is estimated that a high proportion of tribal children suffer from malnutrition, which can have long-lasting effects on their physical and cognitive development. Some of the key factors contributing to malnutrition among tribal communities in India include:
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Lack of access to a balanced diet: Many tribal communities live in poverty and do not have access to a diverse and nutritious diet. This can lead to deficiencies in essential nutrients and increase the risk of malnutrition. Their indigenous dietary pattern leads to a number of health risks.
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Food insecurity: Food insecurity is a common problem in tribal areas, where people may not have access to food on a regular basis. This can lead to malnutrition and make it difficult for children to show stunting and wasting.
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Poor hygiene and sanitation: Poor hygiene and sanitation conditions in tribal communities can lead to the spread of disease, which can make it difficult for people to absorb nutrients from their food and increase the risk of malnutrition.
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Lack of awareness: Tribal communities often lack awareness about the importance of a balanced diet and good nutrition, which can contribute to malnutrition. Proper counselling by ASHA and ANM is required in such areas from time to time to break the age-old patterns.
The Indian government has launched several initiatives to address the issue of malnutrition in tribal communities, including supplementary nutrition programs and awareness campaigns. According to the National Family Health Survey, around 46% of children under the age of five in tribal communities are stunted, compared to the national average of 38%. The health status of tribal communities in India is generally worse compared to the rest of the population. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017), the life expectancy at birth for tribal communities in India is lower than the national average, and infant and maternal mortality rates are higher. The average life expectancy for tribal communities in India is estimated to be around 68 years, compared to the national average of 69 years. The Infant mortality rate among tribal communities in India is estimated to be around 60 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to the national average of 39 deaths per 1,000 live births whereas the maternal mortality rate among tribal communities in India is estimated to be around 174 deaths per 100,000 live births, compared to the national average of 174 deaths per 100,000 live births. Access to healthcare: Access to healthcare is a major challenge for tribal communities in India. According to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2021), only around 45% of the tribal population has access to healthcare facilities. These statistics highlight the need for more efforts to improve the health of tribal communities in India and ensure that they have access to quality healthcare.
Poshan Maah-celebrating Nutrition
The month-long National Nutrition Month is being observed across the country as a Special drive under the Poshan Abhiyaan Program. The program is oreganised by the Ministry of Women and Child Development in a convergence mode and the Ministry of Tribal affairs is an important partner catering to the requirements of tribal population. The month of September 2018 was celebrated as Rashtriya Poshan Maah. The activities in Poshan Maah focused on Social Behavioural Change and Communication (SBCC). The broad themes were: antenatal care, optimal breastfeeding (early and exclusive), complementary feeding, anaemia, growth monitoring, girls’ education, diet, right age of marriage, hygiene and sanitation, eating healthy- food fortification.
Various activities are being organised during the month of September including tribal food festival; promotion of drumsticks by plantation in Ashram schools, Government schools in tribal areas; posters on hand washing; sensitization of ground level functionaries; and growth monitoring plus anaemia mapping among tribal children. The States are also organizing essay and painting competitions, health check-up camps, seminars for parents of children, cooking competition, special gram sabhas, and nutrition training to cooks of tribal schools among others. The month long National Nutrition Month is being observed across the country as a special drive under the Poshan Abhiyaan Program. It is being steered by the Ministry of Women and Child Development in a convergence mode and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs is an important partner catering to the requirements of tribal populations. Having a holistic approach, all 36 states/UTs and districts are covered in a phased manner. There were 315 districts in 2017-18, 235 districts in 2018-19 and the remaining districts in 2019-20. The programme aims to reach out to 10 crore people.
Icds-cas Software Application
By guaranteeing the convergence of several nutrition-related initiatives, the Poshan Abhiyaan aims to reduce the level of under-nutrition and other related issues. This is accomplished by looking for opportunities to use line ministry structures that are already in place. The programme essentially keeps track of nutrition-related aims and schemes in order to better and more efficiently offer benefits to the recipients. Up to July 2018, the ICDS-CAS was in use in 57 districts across 7 States and UTs. It allows for the automatic charting of Growth Charts and has been implemented as of the end of November 2018 in 64 districts across 9 States/UTs. The dashboards provided at the national, state, district, and block levels enable prompt issue detection and response. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) is one of the most celebrated program of the Government of India. It is one of the world’s largest and most unique program of Early Child Care and education. It is implemented throughout the country through a large network of Aanganwadi Centres at the community level. It has a multi-sectoral approach to child development, incorporating health, early and primary education and nutrition interventions.
The objectives of the ICDS Scheme are to improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age group 0–6 years; to lay the foundations for proper psychological, physical and social development of the child; to reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school drop-out; to achieve effective coordination of policy and implementation amongst the various departments to promote child development; and to enhance the capability of the mother to look after the normal health and nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.
Role Of Asha And Anm
The promotion of reproductive health services and the prenatal and postnatal care of women and children is greatly aided by community health professionals. Additionally, they assist the government in carrying out nationwide immunisation campaigns on a big scale. The National Rural Health Mission's goal is to send a trained female community health activist, often known as an ASHA or accredited social health activist, to every village in the nation. Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) scheme began under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) 2005-12 and currently there are 8.8 lakh ASHAs working (all women) in villages across India. These are an all-female cadre of community health workers that have been constituted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare under the National Rural Health Mission in 2006. They are the first point of contact for any health-related issues that the rural people may face and are involved with the primary health care of women and children of the poor and the deprived in the rural population. They have been successful in escorting pregnant women for institutionalised deliveries and facilitating immunisation. They have been active in giving information, facilitating curative care and making home visits. The ASHA workers are selected from the villages and they are accountable for the works of that particular village. They are well-trained in their duties to act as interface between the community and the public health system. Their main work is to mobilize the community towards local health planning and help in access to the existing health facilities.
Apart from that, as per Government of India, they are earmarked with the responsibilities of promoting universal immunization, aid in community participation in public health programmes in her village, to mobilise the community towards local health planning and increased utilisation and accountability of the existing health services, to counsel women on birth preparedness, the importance of safe delivery, breast-feeding and complementary feeding, immunization, contraception and prevention of common infections including Reproductive Tract Infection/Sexually Transmitted Infections (RTIs/STIs) and care of the young child. At the village level, it is recognised that ASHA cannot function without adequate institutional support. Women’s committees (like Self-Help Ggroups or women’s health committees), Village Health & Sanitation Committee of the Gram Panchayat, peripheral health workers especially ANMs and Aanganwadi workers, and the trainers of ASHA and in-service periodic training would be a major source of support to ASHA.
Aanganwadi Worker (Aww)
The Aanganwadi worker is a functionary of the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) in charge of managing the Aanganwadi. Aanganwadi is a type of child and mother care centre that was established as a part of the ICDS. The AWW is supported by a part-time assistant, called an Aanganwadi Helper (AWH). The basic functions of a Aanganwadi Worker include to elicit community support and participation in running the programme, to weigh each child every month, record the weight graphically on the growth card, use referral card for referring cases of mothers/children to the sub-centres/PHC etc., and maintain child cards for children below 6 years and produce these cards before visiting medical and para-medical personnel; to carry out a quick survey of all the families and to organise non-formal pre-school activities in the Aanganwadi of children in the age group 3–6 years of age.; to organise supplementary nutrition feeding for children (0–6 years) and expectant and nursing mothers by planning the menu based on locally available food and local recipes; to make home visits for educating parents to enable mothers to plan an effective role in the child’s growth and development with special emphasis on a newborn child; to assist the PHC staff in the implementation of health component of the Programme viz. immunization, health check-up, antenatal and postnatal check etc.; to bring to the notice of the Supervisors/ CDPO any development in the village this requires their attention and intervention, particularly in regard to the work of the coordinating arrangements with different departments; and to maintain liaison with other institutions (Mahila Mandals) and involve lady school workers and girls of the primary/middle schools in the village which have relevance to her functions.
Nutrition-garden Or Poshan Vatika
Poshan Vatika, sometimes referred to as the Nutrition-Garden, is something that is becoming more and more well-liked at government schools and Aanganwadi centres. It is an effort to reduce malnutrition. Poshan Vatikas are expected to have a significant impact on improving dietary diversity by supplying micronutrients through a consistent supply of fruits and vegetables adequate to meet the needs of the family. They have the potential to develop into a long-term strategy for supplying diversity and food security to fight hunger in families and communities. It appears to be a workable and realistic intervention because the majority of government schools and aanganwadis facilities have enough room to carve out a Poshan Vatika. Poshan Vatika’s planting of nutritive and medicinal trees will lessen reliance on other sources. This could also be credited to make communities ‘Atma-nirbhar’ or independent for their nutritional security.
Situation At Gudur Mandal
In this paper the author examines the Aanganwadi Centres at Gudur. The Aanganwadi Centres (AWCs) provide supplementary nutrition, non-formal pre-school education, nutrition and health education, immunization, health check-up and referral services of which later three services are provided in convergence with public health systems. A total of 18 Aanganwadi Centers were visited in Gudur mandal. The ethnographic data was collected during COVID-19 times and it was quite a challenge to reach the scattered population of tribals. However, with the help of Child Development Project Officer and Supervisors under ICDS, the data collection was done smoothly. The narratives were collected from the beneficiaries of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan and Poshan Abhiyaan and concerned staff was also interviewed using a interview schedule. Wherever language was a challenge, the Supervisors who also acted as Key informants helped in translations from English to Telugu and back. Moreover, amongst Koyas and Chenchus, a different dialect was being spoken and the Aanganwadi Workers who were fluent in Telugu and local dialect came to assistance.
Identity Crises Amongst Tribals
Many Indian tribal societies frequently struggle with identity crises. The tribals are an underrepresented population with a distinctive culture, language, and history that have been largely disregarded or suppressed by traditional Indian society. The indigenous groups are confronted with a number of issues, such as the loss of their traditional lands and resources, poverty, a lack of healthcare and educational resources, and cultural assimilation. One of the major reasons for the identity crisis among tribals is the loss of their traditional way of life. Many tribals have been displaced from their ancestral lands due to development projects such as mining, dam construction, and deforestation. This displacement has resulted in the loss of their livelihood, cultural practices, and way of life, leaving them with a sense of rootlessness and disconnection from their heritage. Another factor that contributes to the identity crisis among tribals is the lack of educational and economic opportunities. Many tribal members lack access to high-quality healthcare, education, and career prospects. The indigenous people are now experiencing a sense of hopelessness and disillusionment as a result of the poverty and lack of social mobility that have been perpetuated. Their identity dilemma is partly a result of tribal people's cultural absorption into mainstream Indian society. Tribal customs and traditions are sometimes mocked by the majority Indian culture, which causes people to lose pride in their cultural background. The tribal people have experienced a sense of inferiority and self-doubt as a result, which has exacerbated their identity dilemma. Addressing the difficulties tribal tribes in India experience and preserving their distinctive cultural heritage are crucial. This can be accomplished by giving them access to economic and educational opportunities, safeguarding their ancestral lands, and encouraging cultural knowledge and respect for their practises.
The tribals have a very strong connection to their culture that is rigorously reflected in their diets, rituals, clothing, livelihoods, etc. In this study it was observed that though the beneficiaries are taking the meals and majority of them are content with it, they miss their indigenous food preparations. The respondents from the Chenchu tribal community reminisced that she used to hunt small games with her family and enjoy the preparations. However, now that hunting and gaming is out of question, she misses the traditional food. Similarly, the respondent from Lambada community shared that they get rice and curry along with dal. However, she prefers roti/chapatti (Indian bread). So, a change of dietary pattern was evident from the interviews. Also, there were many cases of anaemia reported from tribal communities. Focus on millets and iron-rich foods including Moringa (leaves) are also used along with IFA tablets for curbing anaemia.
As per the narratives collected, it is evident that over the period of years, a shift in livelihoods and impacted the socio-economic structure of the tribal communities. The Lambadas, also known as the traditional gipsy community, have experienced numerous changes to their way of life throughout their history as a result of socio-cultural, religious, political, and geographic forces. At various levels, these changes are discernible. Several circumstances have made them to adopt these changes. The respondents from the Lambada community shared that they are now employed in private jobs or small time managers and contractors or drivers. However, those from Koyas and Chenchus are still working as daily wage labourers and have to struggle for two square meals a day.
As times have changed, young females from Lambadas and Koyas have begun attending adjacent institutions as well as schools. The Chenchu tribe has not progressed to that point, though. Additionally, the Chenchu do not value the medium used for instruction in schools and colleges, making it difficult for the wards to handle the strain. They prefer to carry out household duties while remaining at home.
The narratives show that it is evident that more work has to be done despite the plans that have been put in place. Child marriages can be avoided by implementing awareness campaigns, providing incentives, and giving single girls job options when they graduate from high school. Skills development and microfinance are two of the alternatives for livelihood included. Child marriages can be avoided by giving unmarried females employment possibilities once they graduate from high school. These chances for a living include employment, skill development programmes, and SHG microloans. Hence, appropriate/alternate strategies should be taken up with more vigour to reduce the child marriages and early pregnancies in the tribal population and to strengthen the existing maternal care service packages. It will unquestionably lower the prevalence of teen pregnancy and early marriage.
India has the highest rate of infant and maternal mortality due to its enormous population of malnourished and hungry adults and children. These difficulties are joined by a plethora of others, such as illnesses, disease, lack of education, lack of hygiene, etc. The study indicated that compared to other groups, pregnant women from historically marginalised castes and pregnant women with low levels of education were less likely to obtain ICDS services. The large-scale expansion of ICDS in India is commendable given the considerable implementation hurdles such state level implementation decentralisation, population size and variety, financial constraints, and community awareness. It appears that India is well on its way to leveraging ICDS to scale up at least some important nutrition-specific treatments.
Suggested Policy Interventions
There is a huge opportunity to implement the programme with greater rigour. More than eight hours are put in by the Aanganwadi employees and assistants each day. In the best interests of our nation, it is urged that the government should regularise their employment. Additionally, expanding nutrition-specific treatments is a way to enhance the program's quality. The researcher looked at a variety of factors (including personal, familial, societal, and community factors) that are related to maternal feeding practises and discovered that tribal populations require specialised attention in line with their unique tribal customs and ethics. Supervisors' pay may be increased, or a separate travel allowance may be provided, as they are required to visit all Aanganwadis Centers and submit reports.
Tandas lack access to transportation amenities, therefore many must rent cars and pay the associated costs. Less frequent visits result as a result, which has an impact on the monitoring system. While educated doctors, knowledgeable nurses, and experienced professionals are outstanding at what they do and have learned, they frequently lack the social skills and knowledge that are necessary when interacting with rural people. An aanganwadis employee is familiar with the customs of the community, knows the residents by name, engages in regular interaction with them, and may even have a personal connection with them. Her contribution is crucial to the success of the programme. It is advised to receive appropriate training, hone existing skills, and update knowledge as needed. Proper training and skill and updating of the same at timely intervals are suggested. Aanganwadi workers need to have good communication skills. They are usually adept in using the right language, metaphors and allusions for convincing people to act in a certain way. Religious customs and sentiments work best for them.
Planning and initiatives based on data would result in accountable, good governance. For instance, even if the number of severely malnourished children (SAM) is extremely low, if any do exist, they should be referred to a nutrition rehabilitation centre (NRC). In Warangal, there is only one NRC. At the micro level, further NRCs might be planned. The ASHA and ANM must observe the entire breastfeeding cycle in order to advise beneficiaries on the best course of action in the event of a problem. Meals supplied to the recipients should be prepared with locally available cereals, vegetables, and millets.
It is suggested that with convergence under MGNREGA, proper building should be provided that are owned by the Aanganwadi Centres. Drinking water facility, better storage for dry ration, quality Teaching and Learning Material (TLM) etc. needs to be provided and used as well. More number of nutri-gardens or Poshan Vatikas to be planned. In tribal regions, better connectivity and services are required. Additionally, it is proposed that the double burden and triple burden of malnutrition be evaluated before any policy changes are undertaken. Accordingly, a policy brief might be created.