3.1 Governance of energy in Côte d’Ivoire: a fragmented regulatory space
Côte d'Ivoire try to cope with global and local standards in energy governance. International initiatives thus provide the impetus for the deployment of national governance. The scaling up renewable energy initiative in West Africa is an example[14].
Public policies of energy are embedded in different regulatory frameworks, including forestry, climate or environmental policies. Each policy is driven by groups of actors with different objectives. For instance, formal energy governance in Côte d'Ivoire involves six ministries. These ministries are directly or indirectly involved in biomass management, promotion of energy and renewable energy.
There is also the Ministry of Petroleum, Energy and Renewable Energies and its separate procedures. This Ministry is responsible for the implementation and monitoring of the Government's policy on mining, oil, and energy. This ministry implements the Government policy of energy saving and promotion of renewable energies in link with the Minister in charge of Environment and the Minister of Water and Forestry.
Moreover, there are four types of energy fuels for bakery ovens, namely wood energy, gas, diesel and electricity. But the different energy sources used in bakeries in Côte d'Ivoire are wood energy, gas and diesel. None of the bakeries visited use electric ovens as shown in the following table.
Energy
|
Number of bakery
|
Frequency %
|
Electricity
|
0
|
0
|
Firewood
|
98
|
49
|
Gas
|
89
|
45,5
|
Diesel fuel
|
13
|
6,5
|
Total
|
200
|
100
|
Proportion of fuel energy used by bakers in four districts of Abidjan
The Minister of Commerce is responsible for the implementation and monitoring of the Government's trade policy with commercial logic and integration. The bakery sector is regulated by the Ministry of Commerce. The decree N ° 619 / MCAPME / MSLS / MINESUDD of December 17, 2014 declaration required the opening, the installation and the extension of bakeries. Here are some provisions of this decree:
Article 1: The installation, opening and extension of bakeries in Côte d'Ivoire are subject to prior declaration to the Ministry of Commerce.
Article 2: The provisions of this decree apply to artisan bakeries, modern bakeries and bakeries in Côte d'Ivoire.
In the process of opening the bakery, there are two phases of acquiring authorization. According to the head of the bakery sector of the Ministry of Commerce: "For the realization of a bakery, there are two phases. The first phase which is the installation request. There are certain conditions to get installation authorization. It is about not being less than 200m from another bakery and the environment is taking into account. You cannot install a bakery next to the gutters. After that there is an application from for the opening authorization. After all, we send agents to check whether there is hygiene, all equipment, toilets, medical certificates for workers because they will be in contact with the bread that is a food that is not washed before consumption. For required equipment, modern bakeries should not use firewood. These are part of the installation criteria of a bakery. Then our agents do regular checks in collaboration with the district of Abidjan and municipal agents"
According to the classification of the Ministry of Commerce, there are three types of bakeries in Côte d’Ivoire. The modern bakery which is any unit whose main purpose is the production of bread, from wheat flour, types 55, and other flour. This unit must have and production equipment at least one kneader, a scale, a modern oven, and a divider. Then the artisan bakery, which is any unit run by a qualified craftsman, who from flour makes the bread dough, kneads mechanically, makes breads of all kinds and cooks in a traditional oven, sometimes over a wood fire and ensures selling directly to the consumer. Finally, the specialized bakery, it is any unit of bread production starting from the wheat flour of types 55 or any other going into the confection of specific dishes (Lebanese chawarma, American hamburger, etc.) and having an adequate equipment.
The Ministry of Health carries out health inspections, draws up guidelines and standards for the nutrition issues. The purpose of this service is to control the working environment of bakeries.
"Our job is to check the working environment of bakers. Agents go regularly to see if the work equipment is clean, if there is no dirty water running in or around bakeries, are workers clean if there is 'interview…) ". (the head of Hygiene department of Abobo)
The Ministry of Agriculture controls part of the wood and charcoal sector. In addition, the Agricultural Water Control and Farm Modernization Department plays a role in the management of agricultural residues. The institutional framework relating to the environment in general and energy issues in Côte d'Ivoire is characterized by a multiplicity of stakeholders and by frequent restructuring. This situation causes overlap, skills gaps and confusion with roles and responsibilities. Recurrent restructuring of institutions reduces the effectiveness of actions and prevents program monitoring.
For this state structures added private structures and NGOs for them to work together on energy issues and the preservation of the environment. The Ivorian Association of Renewable Energies (AIENIR) created in April 2013, is responsible for promoting and developing renewable energies and energy efficiency in Côte d'Ivoire, and to contribute to the fight against climate change. To this end, the AIENR raises awareness, informs, advises, and assists professionals and project developers. AIENR currently has 24 companies as members and collaborates with organizations such as the Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency of ECOWAS. Of all these initiatives, none really put specific emphasis on cooking energies to push for a transition as intended by official policy.
3.2 Social representations related to the choice of cooking energies
The results show that there is a selection of wood that can be used for feeding the oven for baking bread. For this purpose, two types of wood are identified including "red" wood and "white" wood[1]. All woods are not used for baking bread in bakeries, with a preference for "red" wood considered to be harder and stronger. For this purpose, the most popular wood used by these bakers to produce bread is commonly called the "red wood". Thermally, this type of wood gives off more heat than others and it lasts much longer in its combustion. In practice too, it produces less smoke.
"You have to use good wood to avoid smoke. And then there is a chimney through which the smoke comes out. The wood that is commonly used is commonly called red wood. When the wood makes a lot of smoke, it not only clogs the chimney, and then it dirty the oven and every time we have to maintain the oven” (A bakery manager at Yopougon).
The species most often used for feeding the oven are "Manan, Bété[2], Makore[3], Teck[4]". Moreover, the amount of fire, heat and sparks very often depend on the type of wood used. For these bakers interviewed, the more the wood is heavy and quality, the more it gives heat.
3.3 Choice of fuel energies and economic constraint
The price of fuels is one of the determinants that guides the choice of cooking energies. The economic conditions of access to "modern" combustible energies lead these bakers to turn to firewood. In fact, these bakeries are very often faced with increases in energy prices that threaten their profitability. The average energy expenditure of a bakery is about 200,000 FCFA for those who use firewood, while those using modern energy are around 900,000 FCFA. "The average expenditure per month of a bakery" average "are about 200 000FCFA if it consumes wood. This same bakery, if it consumes gas or diesel, could end up with more than 900,000 CFA francs a month.” (A manager of a chain of bakeries)
The structuring of the firewood trade around these bakeries is based on a network of actors ranging from villagers who own the wood cutting areas, loggers, wholesalers, and retailers of timber sales. In fact, bakers who use firewood get their supplies from wholesalers. Interviewed bakers using firewood reported that they always buy on credit.
"There are bakeries who buy their wood in cash, but they are not many huh. In any case all those with whom I collaborate buy the wood on credit. When I started, I bought cash two or three times. After we negotiated and I take credit” (A baker in Yopougon).
3.4 The infrastructures drivers of cooking energies in bakeries in Abidjan
The fuel gas is in two forms including butane conditioning and butane bulk. The butane conditioning is intended for domestic use and comes in the form of gas cylinders of 6kg (B6), 12.5kg (B12) and 28kg (B28). As for bulk butane gas, it is intended for industries, services and public establishments with tanks. At bakeries, gas conservation is done in a bottle outside the bakery. This maid must not be installed inside the bakery and must be protected to prevent leaks.
"You see how the bottle is placed; it should not be in the bakery. You need a specific place to store the gas. So, you see that if the bakery does not have a good space it is difficult to use the gas. It's not like wood that can be dropped anywhere. " (A bakery manager in Marcory).
Domestic diesel is intended for hospitals, supermarkets, bakeries, and heating industries. In bakeries, storage is done in a tank for gas oil. Diesel in bakeries is most often stored in barrels.
As for wood, packaging does not require device requirements. Just find a storage area either inside or outside the bakery. As for bakeries that use gas or gas oil for baking bread, there is a special device depending on the fuel. It is stored either in front of the bakery or inside the bakery depending on the space of the bakery. From this point of view, the wood meets these requirements more because it does not require a sophisticated equipment installation other than the installation of the oven.
"You see in front of the bakery, that's where the wood is stored when the truck arrives. Often even one can keep up to three truckloads. With wood, you only need a place to keep the wood. It's not a problem. But if it's gas we cannot put it outside like that. " (A bakery manager in Yopougon)
3.5 Competences constrains and coping strategies
Modern furnaces require skills and availability of materials. For this purpose, it assumes that the bakery activity requires theoretical and practical training. Without these skills, the Bakers prefer using wood. They adapt the oven to use wood instead of gas or gas oil. The operation of the equipment for the use of conventional energies carries risks according to the bakers.
"The gas connection must be done by a qualified professional who will ensure the proper gas supply and a good adjustment of burner combustion. These installation operations that you see there, are very delicate and essential for the oven to work without too much trouble." (A baker in Koumassi).
3.6 Discussion
According to[15], all the solutions recommended or implemented in the energy sector are characterised by an almost total absence of interaction between them. Indeed, each of these approaches is often implemented separately from the others with their own data and methodology. [16] echo this by mentioning a multiplicity of actors with multiple interests. To this end, the studies of [17]show that the legal arsenal in terms of the environment in Côte d'Ivoire is well developed. However, the resulting rules are not operational. In doing so, environmental law faces real difficulties of application.
The results of this work answer or reinforce certain presuppositions of the sociology of energies. In fact, the practices of choice of energies that emerge from the Abidjan experience join a set of logics of actions, that is to say, actions were motivations driver that individuals try to pursue but which are related to the constraints of daily life. These constraints are related to housing, income levels, life phases, available technologies, incentives and opportunities (energy prices, existence of tariff offers, etc.).
In a context of rising energy prices, reducing the budget devoted to energy, whether you are an individual in your home or a business owner, is an important concern and has multiple benefits. It is present but in a minority way in both experiments. It is the main driving force behind the action of these families regarding energy management practices. Previous research, notably that of [18,19], has revealed that economic constraint, well-being and comfort in housing are much more structuring than ecological sensitivity, but without looking into the possibility of a spatial constraint that would influence the "energy" skills developed by bakeries.[20,21] did highlight the expression of specific inhabitant knowledge that she calls "energy intelligence", but without necessarily linking it or measuring the influence of inhabited space on this knowledge. Physical accessibility to different energy sources is a determining factor in the choice of bakers. The increase in wood consumption in bakeries is also due to the lower price of wood compared to gas or oil.
According to[21], technology plays a central role in the construction of social heating practices. Regardless of the logics or motivations for action, practices are carried out in socio-technical spaces that determine the conditions under which they are carried out. At this level, the results have shown that the installation of gas and diesel furnaces requires a heavy investment to avoid energy leaks. This aspect is a factor in the choice of wood-burning ovens that do not require a connection.
[22] analyzed daily routines and energy-consuming appliances, developing a theory that underlines the importance of the development and growth of consumption that is taken for granted. She emphasizes the influence of the built environment, housing, and equipment as bearers of the "scripts" that determine the conventions, norms, and current values that inhibit behavioral change.
The results show that bakeries' behavior and choice of baking energy vary according to the municipality in which the bakery is located. Indeed, gas is the most widely used energy in modern bakeries in the commune of Cocody. On the other hand, when we look at the other communes, we discovered that most of these modern bakeries use firewood.