Overall results, comparisons and extrapolations
1506 use-reports for 152 native wild plant species are documented for medical purposes in the study area. Fig. 2 shows the overlaps between the recorded numbers of wild plant species among studied communities. The regions on either side of the border share 83 of the reported plant species. Considering the fact that almost the same flora is found in the two regions, the level of similarity is low. In addition, the number of unique species (43 species) mentioned only by participants in Georgia is significantly higher than the number of unique species (26 species) mentioned only in Turkey (Fig. 2.).
Table 2 summarizes the information about use reports of the 152 wild plant species and comparison with the literature sources. In the comparison of the 817 distinct species-use combinations based on medicinal emic categories (e.g. asthma, ulcer, wound healing etc.), participants in both countries share similar medicinal knowledge of only 77 use incidences (9% of total species-use combinations) for 33 wild plant species (22% of reported species) in common (Fig. 3a). Most important of these species based on CI index are Plantago major, Urtica dioica, Picea orientalis, Anthemis spp., Sambucus ebulus, Achillea millefolium, Helichrysum rubicundum, Mentha longifolia, Pinus sylvestris var. hamata, Hypericum perforatum, Tussilago farfara, Helichrysum plicatum, Rumex crispus, Berberis vulgaris, Origanum vulgare. In contrast, 433 distinct uses were reported only from Georgia, whereas only 307 unique uses were reported from Turkey (Fig. 3a)
When comparisons were based on medicinal use categories (e.g. digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system etc.), out of 490 species-use combinations, only 120 (24% of the reports) of these were found to be in common in both countries (Fig. 3b). The results in figures 3a and 3b indicate significantly low consensus of medicinal knowledge about shared native wild flora across the border. Participants in both countries use a significant number of shared species for different purposes. This lack of shared ethnomedicinal knowledge might be a sign of different epidemiology of certain ailments in communities studied as well as various medicinal knowledge systems in ethnolinguistically diverse communities on both sites of the border.
Table 2 reflects similarities and differences seen between information reported in this study and reports from 26 main literature sources related to folk knowledge of medicinal plants from the Caucasus Ecoregion, mainly North-Eastern and Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey and Georgia, as well as Armenia and Azerbaijan, including literature from Soviet period. Of this study’s 817 distinct species-use combinations based on medicinal sub-categories (asthma, ulcer, wound healing etc.), only 275 of them are similar with those in the above mentioned literature reports. This means that around 66% of this study’s use reports (as a species-medicinal subcategory combination) have not been mentioned specifically in these items of literature. Even, when comparisons are based on medicinal use categories, out of 490 species use combinations, only 276 of them are similar and around 44% of these use reports also have not been mentioned in these literature sources.
Nevertheless, although very limited, the fact that a number of plant species and similar medicinal reports are in common with various areas of the Caucasus Ecoregion would be indicative of consensus and high cultural value for the medicinal knowledge of certain wild plant species in the Ecoregion. The most important fifteen wild plant species consistent with both this study’s reports and those in literature sources are: Urtica dioica, Plantago major, Mentha longifolia, Hypericum perforatum, Pinus sylvestris var. hamata, Rosa canina, Achillea millefolium, Berberis vulgaris, Chelidonium majus, Sambucus ebulus, Vaccinium myrtillus, Picea orientalis, Helichrysum plicatum, Tussilago farfara, Hyoscyamus niger.
Cultural Importance (CI) index of families, genera and species
Figure 4 shows the cultural importance (CI) index of most important families reported in Georgia and in Turkey. Out of 36 plant families recorded on the whole study area, 25 of them were recorded in both countries whereas 8 of them were only from Georgia and 3 of them were only from Turkey. The three most important families according to CI index in order of importance in Georgia are Asteraceae, Rosaceae and Lamiaceae while in Turkey they are Asteraceae, Plantaginaceae and Rosaceae. Most of the important families are represented by several genus in Georgia, while most of them are represented by one or two genus in Turkey. The most important genera in order of importance are Plantago, Urtica, Anthemis, Helichrysum, Sambucus in Georgia and Plantago, Urtica, Picea, Rosa, Helichrysum in Turkey (Fig. 5.).
Asteraceae is seen to have the highest number of genus (16 in Georgia; 15 in Turkey) in both countries. The CI index of this family in Georgia is more than threefold that of Turkey. Significant differences in CI are also noted at the species level. While Anthemis spp. (CI 0.96) are the most important species following Achillea millefolium (CI 0.62) on the Georgian side, in Turkey Helichrysum rubicundum (CI 0.28) is the most important, following Anthemis spp. and Achillea millefolium with same CI value of 0.23. These results might be a sign of differences in the level of knowledge regarding medicinal use of this plants among studied communities. The Rosaceae is the second culturally most important family in Georgia and third in Turkey, mostly respresented by Rosa genus comprising approximately half of the CI value of Rosaceae in both countries. Although several Rosa species have been recorded for medicinal use, a particular selection between two different species between two countries is noted. While Rosa canina with a CI of 0.31 is the most important Rosa species in Georgia; Rosa spinosissima (syn. R. pimpinellifolia) with a CI of 0.32 is the most important Rosa species in Turkey, being more than threefold that the CI index of R. spinosissima in Georgia (0.09). The small CI index value of Rosa spinosissima in Georgia may be due to the fact that it has a narrow distribution and low abundance in Georgia. However, as far as observed, this species has a relatively wider distribution and high abundance in Turkey. Another possible and more plausible explanation is that the particular medicinal use of this species in Turkey, especially in Ardahan, could be related to similar cultural background and unique ethnomedicinal knowledge of the people living there. The frequent use of Rosa spinosissima roots as medicinal tea in this province is an uncommon medicinal use, which has so far rarely been cited in the literature in Turkey. One previous report was from Çıldır, Ardahan [23] within the area of this study, while a further two more reports were from the nearby region, in Erzurum [67,68]. Consensus in this traditional knowledge in Ardahan is likely to reflect the therapeutic efficacy of this plant, a point of interest to be noted for further ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies.
Plantaginaceae is the second most important family in Turkey and fourth in Georgia. Their CI vlaues are close to each other (1.51 in Georgia; 1.26 in Turkey). Plantago spp. (P. major and P. lancelolata) are in the first place within the top 15 culturally salient genera in both countries. Indeed, Plantago major is one of the most frequently reported medicinal species in cited literature (Table 2). In addition, the third family in Georgia, Lamiaceae CI is significantly greater than that in Turkey, being 1.69 and 0.62 respectively. Even the most reported genera in both countries are the same (Mentha and Origanum); Mentha with CI of 0.56 in Georgia and 0.19 in Turkey is a sign of significant differences between the two countries. Actually Mentha is a widely known, reported and used plant species as a food additive in the study area, in Turkey. Therefore, its low medicinal CI value could be related to its less known specific medicinal properties. Same reason might be relevant for Polygonaceae and Ericaceae families which are not represented in CI index of top ten families in Turkey. Polygonum spp., Rumex spp., and Vaccinium spp. are not consumed specifically as medicine but mainly known as food in Turkey.
Plant parts used and preparation and administration methods
More than one plant part is known/used medicinally for 54% of the wild plants mentioned in Georgia and 57% of them in Turkey. Most commonly, the leaves is given for 27% of the URs in Georgia and 26% of URs in Turkey (Table 3 ). Plantago spp. constitute majority of the leaf use reports in both countries. The use of aerial parts with flower comes after leaf use in both countries. Most of the contribution to this use originates from Helichrysum spp., Achillea millefolium, Mentha longifolia and Origanum vulgare. Fruits have also similar use percentage in each country. Rosa spp., Sambucus spp. and Crateagus spp. are frequently used species for their fruits in the study area.
Among the preparation methods, the most common one in both countries is infusion in water/milk/
votka/oil/whey/sugar (48% of URs in Georgia, 32% of URs in Turkey). They are followed by decoction in water/milk/oil and fresh use.
A major application method in both countries is internally, specifically, drinking or eating. In Georgia, drinking and eating constitute 49% and 11% of the URs respectively, in Turkey the corresponding UR data are 37% and 12% respectively. Plastering and bathing are major external application in both countries.
To summarise, communities in both countries utilize many parts of wild medicinal plants, with a variety of modes of preparation and application methods. However, the most common way of using wild plants medicinally in both countries is drinking the water infusion of aerial parts with flowers.
Medicinal use-categories and salient species
In the study area on either side of the Georgian-Turkish border the cultural importance of medicinal use categories as well as salient species used varies significantly among communities.
Table 4 shows the number of use-reports, number of species, cultural importance, and informant consensus for each medicinal use-categories. Comparison of the results in Table 4 reveals that ailments related to digestive and skin problems have the highest number of use-reports in both countries (in total, 43% of URs in Georgia, 49% of URs in Turkey). In order of importance, these categories are followed respectively by respiratory, cardiovascular and muscle-skeletal disorders in both countries. Conversely, complaints related to ear, eye, blood, psychological and neurological conditions have the least (or not any) use-reports in both countries. On the other hand, the informant consensus factor (FIC) in medicinal use categories are, in order of importance, digestive, skin, muscle-skeletal in Georgia and skin, digestive, muscle-skeletal in Turkey. There is no statistical consensus in the ear category in both countries; neither is there any consensus in the psychological and blood category in Turkey. However, it is noted that low (e.g. eye and neuro) or exceptionally high (e.g. in psych) FIC values in this table can be misleading since they were represented by very low use reports, it should not be interpreted as a high degree of intracultural variation but it might be a sign of insufficient documentation of participants’ knowledge [64].
To summarise, the most commonly cited and valued medicinal knowledge/use with high agreement among participants dealt with the treatment of digestive disorders in Georgia whereas it is related with skin complains in Turkey, a result possibly pointing to the fact that communities living in the study area tend to suffer from ailments of these two medicinal categories. These use categories also have the highest wild plant richness in both countries.
Skin
As stated previously, skin ailments are the most important category in Turkey (CI 2.61, FIC 0.76) comprising 29% of URs, while being the second category in Georgia (CI 3.62, FIC 0.73), with 19% of the URs (Table 4 ). 56% of the URs mentioned by participants in Turkey are related to wound and boil. While Plantago major is the most important plant for boil treatment, Picea orientalis and Plantago major are the most important plants for wound healing in both countries. Plantago major leaves specifically is used for boils either macerated or plastered on skin after warming on stove in the study area. The use of Plantago major for boils and wounds was also frequently cited in the literature [12,16,17,19,20,21,23,25,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74]. On the other hand, macerated resin of Picea orientalis, locally called “pisi”, is applied as a plaster for any kind of wound, a widely known application in Turkey, and is also mentioned for wounds and boils in Georgia. One unique report describes using it in a homemade wound healing salve, a mixture of Picea resin, beeswax, butter and olive oil. Such healing properties of Picea orientalis are also consistent with applications mentioned in several sources from Turkey [75,76,73,77,78] and one source from Georgia [14]. In addition, Urtica dioica and Anthemis spp. are commonly reported species to treat hair care complaints by participants from both countries. A bath with water decoction of aerial parts of Urtica dioica or with the infusion of Anthemis spp. flowers are stated to treat hair care problems.
Sap of Chelidonum majus is the only shared species commonly used externally to cure warts in both countries. Magic rituals are also reported for this skin disorder. Alnus glutinosa and Salix spp. are the ones to cure warts in Turkey. With the former, as many Alnus glutinosa leaves as the number of warts are hung on the wall. It is thus believed that the warts will disappear when the leaves dry and fall to the ground. In the latter practice, people carve as many notches as the number of warts in a branch of Salix spp. and keep it over the roof of the house. The wart is predicted to disappear when the branch falls from the roof.
Digestive system
The most widely used traditional cures for digestive complaints differ in both countries. In Georgia, the species with highest cultural importance in this category is Plantago major (CIs 0.42), whereas in Turkey, Picea orientalis has the highest CIs (0.28) for digestive problems. URs for Plantago major in Georgia and Picea orientalis in Turkey mainly stem from stomachache. Among the applications, drinking a water infusion of the leaves of Plantago major is commonly known for treating stomachache in Georgia. The use of Plantago major for stomach related disorders was also reported in both countries [12,16,19, 69, 77, 68, 79]. Moreover, fresh resin of Picea orientalis is found to be commonly used as chewing gum or swallowed for stomach ache in Turkey. The use of Picea resin for stomach related disorders was also reported in both countries [73,78,77,12].
Berberis vulgaris is another important species for digestive problems with similar cultural importance in each country. Jaundice is the only illness mentioned for its use in Turkey. Participants frequently called it “sarılık ağacı” which literally means “the tree of yellowness” in Turkish. Similarly, it is frequently said to cure jaundice and liver associated diseases in Georgia. Drinking of or/and bathing in a water decoction of Berberis vulgaris branches are the common mode of applications for jaundice in both countries. Using roots, bark and also fruits had been previously noted for treatment of jaundice in Georgia [80]. An infusion of the fruit in salty water had been reported to cure jaundice in Azerbaijan [80]. Similar medicinal knowledge was reported close to the current study area only in the Turkish province of Erzurum. Bathing and drinking a water decoction of Berberis vulgaris root, and licking the root of Berberis vulgaris x crateagina for curing jaundice in this province were mentioned in several studies [20,67,68,81].
The other commonly mentioned digestive related problems and plants are Sambucus ebulus used for constipation and, Anthemis spp. and Quercus petrea species used to cure tooth ailments. Interestingly, only Quercus petrea has no mentions in Turkey. Among the applications, gargling a water decoction of the outer bark of Quercus petraea is commonly known for treating toothache in Georgia. There is not any reports of medicinal usage of Quercus species in previous studies conducted in the Turkish part of the Caucasus or even in the ethnomedicinal review for East Anatolia [82]. However, a similar use was reported in Georgian sources [83]. Thus, its unique medicinal use knowledge recorded in Georgia might be attributed to cultural background as well as to the remedies written in the literature, especially in ancient traditional medical books. Indeed, when participants were asked about the origin of their ethnomedicinal knowledge, although most in Georgia referred to their elders’ knowledge as a primary source, some also acknowledged their primary school education and others recalled Russian botanists who had conducted research in the region. Furthermore, several referred to the 15th century Georgian book “Karabadini”, which had formerly been known as “Ustsoro Karabadini”, the first almanac of medicinal remedies and medicinal knowledge, written by Kananeli Karaba in the 10th century. A further source of knowledge mentioned was the “Turmanidze family”, an acknowledged traditional Georgian medical family. Some also made a reference to Russian medicinal plant guidebooks and web pages. In contrast, no similar examples was mentioned by participants in Turkey, whose sole source of plant knowledge was their elders and people around. They also complained about lack of scientifically sound medicinal plant sources in Turkish. Georgian participants’ multilingualism enabled them to access a diverse range of literature related to medicinal plants that could account to some degree for the resulting variation in people’s ethnomedicinal knowledge across this border.
Respiratory system
In accordance with measures of cultural importance (CI), diseases related to the respiratory system are the third most important medicinal category in both countries. The species with the highest cultural importance for respiratory diseases are Pinus sylvestris var. hamata. (CIs 0.40) and Tussilago farfara (CIs 0.38) in Georgia. In contrast in Turkey, Helichrysum rubicundum (CIs 0.14) and Rosa spinosissima (CIs 0.09) are mostly used for respiratory diseases.
The most common respiratory ailments in Georgia are cough (30 % of respiratory URs), lung diseases (20%), and bronchitis (15%). Water infusions of young seed cones and pollen cones, or a mixture of both plant parts of Pinus slyvestris var. hamata are widely known tea remedies for treating common respiratory diseases. Mainly pollen, as well as cone have been reported for these disorders and for asthma, from different parts of Georgia [12,13,15]. On the other hand, a decoction of the needles for cough was reported in Azerbaijan [84]. However, in Turkey, Pinus sylvestris has a very low value (CIs 0.03). Only the infusion of young seed cones are reported for cough and asthma with a UR value of 2.
Another treatment reported only in Georgia, to be good for asthma, bronchitis and lung diseases is a jam made of young seed cones and pollen cones and also pollen cones mixed with honey. Indeed, during fieldwork in Georgia, the sale in local bazaars of fresh Pinus sylvestris cones and pollens as a medicine was frequently observed, traders inviting shoppers to taste their pollen. One participant offered jam made of young seed cones of Pinus sylvestris. This events revealed the continuing existence of a living traditional phytomedicine heritage in Georgia. In contrast, no participant in Turkey gave any clue of similar traditions related to Pinus sylvestris. In fact, most were astonished to hear of the usage of Pinus cones as a jam. Although the species is homogeneously distributed across the study area, and used across the border in various ways (material, construction, fuel), the greatly contrasting high medicinal CI values in Georgia and very low CI values in Turkey might be associated with cultural background of the communities as well as participants’ in Georgia accessing medicinal knowledge in multilingual literature sources. The high regard of local people for the Russian name, “sosna”, for Pinus sylvestris might be a reflection of multilingual literature on medicinal knowledge in Georgia. Similary, the leaves of Tussilago farfara has a wide range of uses in respiratory diseases (cough, bronchitis, asthma, lung diseases) in Georgia but in Turkey it is not reported in this research, even though it was widely reported in the literature [12,14,16,17,74,85,86].
Cough (14% of the respiratory URs), throatache (5%) bronchitis (5%) and asthma (4%) are the most commonly mentioned diseases in Turkey. A water infusion or decoction of Helichrysum rubicundum aerial parts with flowers, for cough and throat complains is one of the most mentioned remedy (10 UR) only in Turkey. Its use in respiratory disease was scarcely mentioned in the cited literature in Turkey [67]. A water decoction of Rosa spinosissima root, mainly for cough and bronchitis, is another common remedy in Turkey. Furthermore, a water decoction of its fruits was given for cough which had also been reported from Turkey before [79]. Water decoction of roots is also mentioned to cure influenza, which has also been reported in this and other studies [23,69]. Interestingly, for Georgia and other neighboring countries, no use-reports were found to be specified for Rosa spinosissima (syn. R. pimpinellifolia) or Helichrysum rubicundum for these respiratory disorders.
Cardiovascular system
It is the fourth most important medicinal use category in Georgia (CI 2.22) and in Turkey (CI 0.93). Hemorrhoid (including its itching symptoms) is the most widely mentioned complaint among the participants in Turkey (66 UR, 39% of the cardiovascular URs). Similarly, in Georgia it is comprising 31% of cardiovascular URs.
In Turkey, Rosa spp., in particular, R. canina (4 UR) and R. spinosissima (7 UR) are the most important species used against hemorrhoids. Fruits of R. canina and roots of R. spinosissima (occasionally their fruits) are widely known/used for hemorrhoids by participants in Turkey. A review related to plants used to treat hemorrhoids identified Rosa canina as most frequently used species in Turkey, while Rosa spinosissima (syn. R. pimpinellifolia) was mentioned in only one study conducted in Erzurum in 1999-2000 [81] in which only fruits, not roots were reported to be used [87]. Later research did report the use of roots [68] and several other studies mentioned the use of fruits [79,72]. The use of fruits and/or roots together to treat hemorrhoids was also reported as well [67]. However, in this particular fieldwork in Georgia, among Rosa spp., only Rosa canina (2 UR) was mentioned for hemorrhoids. Furthermore, neither R. spinosissima nor R. canina was mentioned for hemorrhoids in the sources from Georgia, Azerbaijan or Armenia [88]. Gentiana spp. (9 UR) are widely recorded second species in Turkey for hemorrhoids.
On the other hand in Georgia, Gentiana spp. are the most important ones, mainly G. septemfida (8 UR) is used for hemorrhoids. A bathing water decoction or drinking water infusion of aerial parts with flowers is applied for treatment. This species has not been reported for hemorrhoids in the cited literature. Here, high blood pressure and hearth disease are the other major reports (65% of cardiovascular URs). The tea of Helichrysum plicatum, Mentha longifolia, and Thymus spp. are widely known to decrease high blood pressure. Crataegus spp. have notable importance (11 UR) for heart health in Georgia, where the fruits of these species are eaten fresh, consumed as compote or drunk as tea. Several studies from Georgia [12,16,89] and relevant sources from Azerbaijan and Armenia [89] also mention similar use-reports of fruits, flowers or leaves of Crataegus spp. (mainly C. pentagyna and C. monogyna).
Muscle-skeletal system
Muscle-skeletal complaints are among the top five medicinal use categories in both Georgia (CI 1.62) and Turkey (CI 0.78) with relatively high FIC values (0.67 in Georgia; 0.63 in Turkey) in both countries. Bone and joint pain, and rheumatism problems are widely reported by the participants in both countries (34% of the muscle-skeletal URs in Tukey; 74% of them in Georgia). A bathing in water decoction of Urtica dioica aerial parts or Equisetum arvense aerial parts is the most commonly used remedy in both countries. Plastering of body with fresh leaves of U. dioica is also applied for rheumatism in the study area. Among the rheumatism reports, local names given for the species indicate a very diverse ethnolinguistic background of the communities. The use of U. dioica for rheumatism is also frequently cited in the literature [18,20,21,23,68,67,71,85,72,73,77,78]. These consensus might show the potential activity of the Urtica dioica for rheumatism. However, Equisetum arvense for rheumatism was only reported in one literature [85]. Moreover, a serious muscle-skeletal disease, rachitism is mentioned only from Georgia. Bathing in water decoction or plastering of Tussilago farfara leaves, and bathing in water decoction of Equisetum arvense aerial parts are suggested as its remedies in Adjara.
Genitourinary system
In this study, genitourinary disorders are more commonly mentioned in Georgia (69 UR, CI 1.53) than in Turkey (55 UR, CI 0.74). The majority of the use reports (64%) in Georgia concern the kidneys (kidney stones, pains and other kidney diseases), while female (vaginal discharge, abortion, infertility) and male (prostate) genital conditions are proportionally more reported (60% of URs) in Turkey than in Georgia. Helichrysum spp. (H. plicatum, H. rubicundum) and Rosa spp. (mostly R. canina) are most frequently mentioned species for kidney related problems in Georgia. Helichrysum spp. were also widely reported species to cure kidney problems in the cited literature [68,75,71,79,72,78,18], but Rosa canina has few reports [79,18]. In addition, Plantago major is used for various genitourinary diseases in Turkey. Drinking water infusion of Helichrysum spp. aerial parts with flowers, and water infusions or decoctions of Rosa fruits are the most common remedy for kidney related problems in Georgia, whereas in Turkey drinking water decoction of Rosa spp. are mentioned to be good for the prostate. On the other hand, bathing with Helichrysum spp. is reported for women diseases in Turkey. Interestingly, there are several plants mentioned for abortion only in Turkey namely Malva neglecta, Cephalaria gigantea, Achillea millefolium, Sambucus ebulus, Viscum album.
General health and unspecified illnesses
The use of wild plants as preventive medicine for general health has 6.6% of the total medicinal use reports in Georgia, while in Turkey this constitutes 3.5% of them. A cure-all (panacea) and using plants against fever and pain are the most common emic categories in both countries. Origanum vulgare, Ribes spp., Satureja spicigera species are mentioned for them in Georgia, while Rosa, Heracleum and Thymus species are mentioned in Turkey. Ribes spp. are frequently mentioned against fever in Georgia, a use not previously specified in the literature. Moreover, Picea orientalis, Pinus sylvestris var. hamata, Abies nordmanniana and Tussilago farfara are mentioned by participants for use against tuberculosis in Georgia. Others have previously reported these species except Tussilago farfara for the treatment of tuberculosis in Georgia [12,16], while a similar record was made for Picea orientalis in Turkey [73].
Endocrine system
Diabetes is the most commonly mentioned disease in both countries. It constitutes 69% of the endocrine reports in Georgia and 77% of them in Turkey. Vaccinium spp. (V. mrytillus, V. arctostaphylos and V. uliginosum) and Satureja spicigera are the most important species used for the treatment of diabetes in Georgia, while in Turkey, Crataegus spp. (C. monogyna, C. azarolus, C. pentagyna) and Sorbus aucaparia are the most important species. Aerial parts of Satureja spicigera mixed with yoghurt is eaten or water infusion of the aerial part is drunk in Georgia. On the other hand, water infusion of young branches of both Vaccinium spp. with leaves is a widespread application employed for the treatment of diabetes by participants in Georgia, with one report of the eating of their fresh fruits. The same details, especially for V. arctostaphylos, were also mentioned in several studies from Georgia only [12,16,17,25]. Similarly, although less commonly reported, V. mrytillus was mentioned in the same ways in Turkey, with fruits or/and leaves of V. mrytillus having been reported for diabetes around the study area, and in general in the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey [75,76,70,21]. Moreover, the eating of fresh ripe fruits of Crataegus spp. and Sorbus aucuparia are recorded as the common treatment for diabetes in Turkey and, although uncommon, the same use is also reported in Georgia. The utilization of Sorbus aucuparia against diabetes has not been previously reported in/around this particular study region either in Turkey or in Georgia although its antidiabetic uses were reported in several sources [90]. Similarly, Crataegus spp. (C. azarolus var. pontica, C. monogyna, C. pentagyna) have not been mentioned as antidiabetic in the cited references (Table 2).
In summary, the six medicinal use categories mentioned above are represented by 17 plant species having at least seven UR in one of these categories in either country. They are ranked in accordance with the number of mean UR for each use category in Table 5 .
The 15 genera/species with highest CI and their relative importance in each medicinal use-category are shown in Fig. 6. , Fig. 7. It seems that the culturally most important species are also the most versatile species in terms of number of different uses. Based on CI index value, two thirds of the top 15 genera in both countries have use reports for at least seven medicinal use categories. Therefore, the diversity of usage makes these species and genera of top priority for our participants’ health, well beings and cultures.
Other medicinal use-categories
The categories with the fewest use reports (URs) in Georgia are psychological, neurological, blood, and eye complaints. Similar categories have the fewest reports in Turkey, namely neurological, blood, eye, psychological and ear.
Drinking water infusions of Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica flowers is mentioned to be relaxing in Georgia. Regarding psychological complaints, tea of Clinopodium grandiflorum, Mentha longifolia, and Hypericum perforatum, seeds of Papaver orientale and flowers of Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica are mentioned for relaxing, sleep disorders and as sedative by participants in Georgia. While in Turkey, Echinops pungens and Papaver orientale are mentioned for sleep disorders and as sedative. In the former, water infusion of leaves, while in the latter tea made of milk infused flowers is used.
As for neurological disorders, ten species are mentioned in each countries mostly for headache. Among these species only Urtica dioica is shared by participants in both countries. Other than internal use of these species for headache as a tea, some species are applied externally as a headbands. Petasites spp. and Rumex crispus leaves are mentioned for this in Georgia while Trachystemon orientalis and Urtica dioica leaves are used in Turkey. Two previous unique reports from the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey also mention the external use of fresh Rhododendron ponticum leaves for headache [74,75].
Considering blood related problems, four species are given in Georgia. Cornus mas and Urtica dioica are used for anemia; Rosa canina, Plantago major, and Urtica dioica for cleansing the blood. All these species have also been reported for similar diseases in literature sources [14,18,78,88]. On the other hand, seven species are named for blood problems in Turkey, six of which are used for anemia (Rosa spinosissima, Prunus avium, Hypericum linarioides, Urtica dioica, Prunus laurocerasus, Rosa canina), one for iron deficiency (Vaccinium myrtillus). A report of enhanced blood production of Vaccinium myrtillus and Prunus laurocerasus have also been mentioned in Turkey [73,77].
For eye conditions, a drinking water infusion of Vaccinium myrtillus leaves and the eating of its fresh fruits are mentioned to be good for sight in Georgia. These remedies have also been reported from Georgia [25] and from Turkey [76]. External application of a water infusion of Salix capraea flower and a water infusion of Mentha longifolia aerial parts are reported to cure eye diseases in Georgia. On the other hand, in Turkey, a drinking water decoction of Crataegus rhipidophylla fruits and plastering Arctium platylepis leaves are mentioned for eye diseases. In addition, bathing with water decoction of Teucrium polium species aerial parts with flowers is reported for babies against hypopyon. Ear complaints are only mentioned in Turkey with two species. Plastering leaves of Arctium platylepis and drinking water infusion of Tanacetum macrophyllum flowers are reported to cure earache.