The effect of the lowest heat stress limit conditions on psychomotor fatigue threshold in soccer players

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3142455/v1

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The effect of the lowest heat stress limit conditions on psychomotor fatigue threshold in soccer players

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3142455/v1

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The study aimed to examine relationships between psychomotor fatigue threshold and the lowest heat stress limit (HSL) during incremental exercise, simulated in an environmental test chamber. Twenty-four soccer players performed a graded treadmill running exercise test. Directly before the test and during the break after each load, blood was collected to determine lactate concentration (LA) and serotonin concentration (SER). The heart rate (HR), pulmonary ventilation (Ve) and oxygen uptake (VO₂) were recorded and the psychomotor test was performed. The levels of the tested parameters were determined at four measurement points: (1) at rest, (2) at the lactate threshold (T_LA), (3) at the threshold of psychomotor fatigue (T_PF), (4) at maximum intensity. Percentage differences between maximum intensity (100%) and the values of the tested parameters recorded at the T_LA and T_PF were also calculated. The tests were carried out in a climatic chamber at an ambient temperature of 28.5°C, relative air humidity of 58.7%. and wind speed of 2 m·s^− 1. It was confirmed that the T_PF, which reflects the highest efficiency of the central nervous system, occurs at a higher running speed than the T_LA. For practical application, it was found that at the HSL, the T_PF occurs at: 84% of maximum running speed, 52% of maximum LA concentration, 93% SER_max, 91% HR_max, 73% VE_max, 84% VO_2max. The findings may facilitate the understanding of the physiological and psychomotor reactions at the borderline between some and great thermal discomfort (on the humidex scale). This will enable coaches and coaching staff to optimize training sessions in more challenging environments.

lactate threshold

choice reaction time

serotonin

heart rate

World Cup Qatar

thermal stress

players’ heat balance

Heat stress is a serious problem for athletes because it significantly impairs the performance of specific motor tasks and the accuracy of decision-making (Racinais et al. 2015). According to Grantham et al. (2010), soccer players at air temperatures below 22°C are not exposed to heat stress and its negative effects, while the risk is low between 22 and 28°C, but high above 28°C. An additional burden for the soccer player's body exposed to high ambient temperatures is high air humidity. Hensen (1990) and Hensen et al. (2013) noted that at temperatures close to or near the comfort zone (20–22°C), relative humidity fluctuations in the range of 20–60% did not affect the thermal comfort of physically active people. This corresponds to the calculated average of the maximum values occurring in the last ten years in Qatar on the day of the year on which the World Cup in 2022 began, i.e. ambient temperature 28.5 ± 1.92°C and relative air humidity 58.7 ± 8.64% (Chodor et al. 2021). With regard to humidex, athletes should experience some discomfort in these conditions (Sirangelo et al. 2020). It is worth noting that these conditions are close to great discomfort, i.e. they can be defined as the “lowest heat stress limit” (Geletič et al. 2018; Foster et al. 2022).

Climatic conditions are significant modifiers of the physiological and psychomotor reactions of soccer players during the match (Nassis et al. 2015; Konefał et al. 2020). Heat stress has many consequences for the body. It causes an increase in the internal body temperature above 38.5°C, an accelerated heart rate (due to the redirection of blood flow to the surface of the skin) and the transition from aerobic to anaerobic energy metabolism, which leads to faster depletion of muscle glycogen (Tyler et al. 2016). It impairs the function of the cardiovascular system, reducing the oxygen supply to working muscles, thus causing peripheral fatigue (Nybo 2010).

However, the psychophysiological process that causes fatigue is complex and involves central fatigue in addition to peripheral fatigue. Signals from all bodily systems are integrated into the brain as a safety mechanism to prevent physiological adjustments in any of the systems involved in the exercise from being exceeded (Tyler et al. 2016). Central nervous system (CNS) fatigue symptoms are less well understood. Research suggests that the central source of fatigue is related to the activity of several neurotransmitters, including serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NA) (Meeusen and de Meirleir 1995; Hasegawa et al. 2011; Zheng et al. 2018). Serotonin is one of the main neurotransmitters causing central fatigue, the concentration of which in the brain depends on the availability of the amino acid tryptophan. The symptoms of central fatigue include: decreased ability to exercise (similar to peripheral fatigue), decreased coordination, decreased speed and precision of movements, increased muscle tremor, decreased concentration, perception, anticipation, speed and correctness of reaction, and psychomotor efficiency (Mohr et al. 2012; Nybo et al. 2014).

As scientific research shows, hard physical work can reduce the efficiency of cognitive processes (Brisswalter et al. 1997), but moderate-intensity physical exercise can improve psychomotor performance (Tomporowski 2003). Upon closer analysis, Chmura et al. (1994) found that a specific level of peripheral fatigue does not reduce, and even improves the psychomotor efficiency of players. This is related to the upper limit of exercise load and fatigue tolerance occurring above the lactate threshold, which is accompanied by the shortest reaction time, the highest level of differentiation of audiovisual stimuli and the most optimal performance, i.e. with the threshold of psychomotor fatigue (T_PF). Exceeding the T_PF leads to a rapid deterioration of these variables (Chmura and Nazar 2010).

The psychomotor fatigue threshold in the context of conditions for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar has been shown so far in only one study, which additionally included a comparison with thermo-neutral climate conditions (Konefał et al. 2022). On the basis of a limited number of parameters, taking into account only the reaction time, preliminary relationships between psychomotor fatigue and lactate thresholds were found.

However, the threshold of psychomotor fatigue in relation to many other physiological parameters and essential human heat balance measures has not been studied so far in the context of climatic conditions which are at the borderline between some and great thermal discomfort on the heat stress scale. From the cognitive point of view, it is interesting how the body of the players reacts in such conditions. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate relationships between psychomotor fatigue threshold and soccer players’ heat balance measures at the lowest heat stress limit (borderline between some and great thermal discomfort) during incremental exercise, simulated in an environmental test chamber.

Subjects

In the present research we have applied a part experimental study described in details by Konefał et al. (2022). In the experiment twenty-four soccer players aged 21.02 ± 3.22 years from a Polish 4th league club volunteered for this investigation. All athletes were instructed to maintain a normal diet 24 h prior to testing. Their body height was 180.22 ± 4.38 cm, body weight 74.20 ± 7.43 kg, training experience 9.0 ± 1.3 years. The players trained five times a week. In order to record credible and reliable results of experiment, the players were instructed on proper diet, sleep and not performing heavy training loads the day before the test. The study was carried out in October and November 2018. The study was conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local ethics committee and they were funded from National Science Centre grant no. 379162.

Procedures

Ambient micrometeorological conditions

The tests were carried out in a certified testing laboratory, in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climatic chamber, at an ambient temperature of 28.5°C and relative air humidity of 58.7% (Chodor et al. 2021). This is at a temperature corresponding to the lower limit of heat stress adopted on the basis of Grantham et al. (2010) research and the upper limit of the standard related to air humidity (Hensen 1990). In the climatic chamber air ventilation with the average speed of 2 m·s^− 1 was applied in order to reduce heat strain in subjects examined in the experiment. To assess the overheating risk the Belding-Hatch's (1955) Heat Stress Index (HSI, in %) was used. In conditions of no air movement the HSI was about 100% (indicating the maximal level of heat stress tolerated by young, acclimated persons). Application of air movement has reduced the HSI to approximately 40%, i.e. intensive heat stress which represents a health hazard for non-acclimated persons (Błażejczyk and Kunert 2011).

Testing protocol

An exercise test with increasing load was performed on a Cybex 790T treadmill. After entering the climatic chamber, the player adapted himself in a sitting position to the conditions in the chamber for 10 minutes (Rest). Every exercise test started the with a speed (V) of 8 km·h^− 1 and V was increased every 3 minutes by another 2 km·h^− 1 until exhaustion.

Directly before the test and during the break after each load, blood samples were taken from the fingertip to determine serotonin concentration (SER) (ng·ml^− 1) (commercial ELISA test – DRG MedTec) and lactate concentration in capillary blood (LA, mmol·l^− 1) (Roche Diagnostics Cobas b 123 analyser). During whole test, the heart rate (HR, bpm) was recorded (sport-tester POLAR RS-400). In addition, gasometric parameters – pulmonary ventilation (Ve) (l·min^− 1) and oxygen uptake VO₂ (ml·kg^− 1·min^− 1) – were determined using the CORTEX MetaMax 3b mobile ergospirometer.

Incremental exercise test and tested parameters

The psychomotor test was performed before the incremental exercise test and in the last 30 seconds of each three-minute load. Choice reaction time (CRT) was recorded using an APR device (UNI-PAR, Poland). According to the procedures described by Chmura et al. (2020) and applied in research by Konefał et al (2022) the measurement programme consisted of 25 visual stimuli: red, green and yellow.

Essential characteristics of the heat balance of examined subjects were also defined, namely: metabolic heat production (M, W·m^− 2), mean skin temperature (Tskin, °C), net heat storage (S, W·m^− 2), physiological subjective temperature (PST, °C) and evaporative water loss (EWL, ml·h^− 1). The Man-ENvironment heat EXchange model (MENEX) of Błażejczyk (1994) was applied for this purpose. Detail equation of above measures are done in Błażejczyk and Matzarakis (2007), Błażejczyk and Kunert (2011), Szymczak and Błażejczyk (2021). The calculations were made using the BioKlima 2.6 software package.

In order to achieve the aim of the study, the levels of the tested parameters and heat balance measures were determined at four measurement points: (1) at rest – Rest, (2) at the lactate threshold – T_LA, (3) at the threshold of psychomotor fatigue – T_PF, (4) at maximum intensity – Max intensity. Percentage differences between Max intensity (100%) and the values of the tested parameters recorded in T_LA and T_PF were also calculated.

The lactate threshold (T_LA) was determined using the Dmax method, which allows to determine the individual threshold value (Czuba et al. 2009). The psychomotor fatigue threshold (T_PF) was defined as the running speed corresponding to the shortest choice reaction time (Chmura and Nazar 2010).

Statistical analyses

The Shapiro–Wilk test was apply to check the normality of the data distribution. The data are presented as means ± standard deviations (SD). A one-way analysis of variance for the compared values of tested parameters obtained for Rest, T_LA, T_PF and after the incremental exercise test (Max intensity) was used. The Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test was applied to check differences between pairs of means. A p < 0.05 was used as the level of significance. All statistical analyses were performed using the STATISTICA ver. 13.3 software package (StatSoft. Inc., USA).

Statistical analysis of physiological and kinematic parameters in relation to successive measurement times in the incremental exercise test (Rest, T_LA, T_PF, Max intensity) revealed effects in relation to levels of LA (F(3) = 178.588, p = 0.001); V (F = 125.208(2); p = 0.001), CRT (F = 50.488(3); p = 0.001); HR (F = 1702.23(3); p = 0.001); Ve (F = 85.515(2); p = 0.001); VO₂ (F = 64.118(2); p = 0.001); SER (F = 33.572(3); p = 0.001); M (F = 64.229(3); p = 0.001); Tskin (F = 64.000(2); p = 0.001); S (F = 64.015(2); p = 0.001); PST (F = 61.680(2); p = 0.001); EWL (F = 64.540(2); p = 0.001). See Table 1.

Table 1

Differences in values and percent maximal values of parameters tested at the lowest heat stress limit and subsequent measurement times in incremental exercise test (mean ± SD).
Parameters	Climate conditions	Rest (1)	T_LA (2)	T_PF (3)	Max intensity (4)	F (Sig.)	SSD (p ≤ 0.05)
LA (mmol·l^− 1)	HSL	1.56 ± 0.33	3.98 ± 0.71	5.10 ± 1.91	9.67 ± 2.55	178.588 (0.001)	1 < 2 < 3 < 4
LA (mmol·l^− 1)	%max	-	43 ± 8	52 ± 12	100
V (km·h^− 1)	HSL	-	13.43 ± 0.97	14.25 ± 1.36	17.08 ± 1.02	125.208 (0.001)	2 < 3 < 4
V (km·h^− 1)	%max	-	79 ± 3	84 ± 7	100
CRT (ms)	HSL	309.04 ± 30.36	273.85 ± 26.49	263.21 ± 20.44	281.58 ± 26.72	50.488 (0.001)	1 > 2 > 3 < 4
CRT (ms)	%max	-	97 ± 5	94 ± 4	100
HR (bpm)	HSL	69.89 ± 6.55	171.93 ± 8.23	177.51 ± 12.41	195.04 ± 2.77	1702.23 (0.001)	1 < 2 < 3 < 4
HR (bpm)	%max	-	88 ± 4	91 ± 6	100
Ve (l·min^− 1)	HSL	-	87.78 ± 17.90	96.79 ± 20.68	132.16 ± 18.77	85.515 (0.001)	2 < 3 < 4
Ve (l·min^− 1)	%max	-	67 ± 11	73 ± 10	100
VO₂ (ml·kg^− 1·min^− 1)	HSL	-	45.34 ± 6.84	47.42 ± 4.72	56.61 ± 5.55	64.118 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
VO₂ (ml·kg^− 1·min^− 1)	%max	-	80 ± 7	84 ± 7	100
SER (ng·ml^− 1)	HSL	71.19 ± 22.62	90.96 ± 23.07	94.50 ± 26.27	101.79 ± 23.82	33.572 (0.001)	1 < 2.3 < 4
SER (ng·ml^− 1)	%max	-	90 ± 12	93 ± 13	100
M (W·m^− 2)	HSL	-	727.42 ± 127.49	760.08 ± 100.49	907.22 ± 114.51	64.229 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
M (W·m^− 2)	%max	-	80 ± 7	84 ± 7	100	64.229 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
Tskin (°C)	HSL	-	32.54 ± 0.16	32.58 ± 0.13	32.77 ± 0.15	64.000 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
Tskin (°C)	%max	-	99 ± 0.2	99 ± 0.3	100	64.000 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
S (W·m^− 2)	HSL	-	310.34 ± 60.20	325.78 ± 47.35	394.87 ± 53.71	64.015 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
S (W·m^− 2)	%max	-	78 ± 8	83 ± 8	100	64.015 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
PST (°C)	HSL	-	48.52 ± 2.08	49.06 ± 1.59	51.32 ± 1.74	61.680 (0.001)	2 < 3 < 4
PST (°C)	%max	-	95 ± 2	96 ± 2	100	61.680 (0.001)	2 < 3 < 4
EWL (ml·h^− 1)	HSL	-	976.46 ± 153.84	1015.80 ± 121.69	1194.89 ± 139.58	64.540 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
EWL (ml·h^− 1)	%max	-	81 ± 6	85 ± 7	100	64.540 (0.001)	2.3 < 4
HSL – heat stress limit; LA – lactate concentration in capillary blood; V – speed; CRT – choice reaction time; HR – heart rate; Ve – pulmonary ventilation; VO₂ – oxygen uptake; SER – serotonin concentration; M – metabolic heat production; Tskin – mean skin temperature; S – net heat storage; PST – physiological subjective temperature; EWL – evaporative water loss; SSD – statistically significant differences

The study investigated potential relationships between the psychomotor fatigue threshold and the lowest heat stress limit (borderline between some and great thermal discomfort on the humidex scale) during incremental exercise, simulated in an environmental test chamber.

Heat stress is becoming more and more common at major sporting events. Recently, the Word Cup in Brazil in 2014 and the Olympic Games in Tokyo in 2021 were held in extreme thermal and hygroscopic conditions (Chmura et al. 2017; Kissling et al. 2020). Currently, such conditions apply to players playing in the World Cup in Qatar, where players will perform at the borderline of some and great thermal discomfort (Sirangelo et al. 2020). The consequence of this is a decrease in endurance and speed abilities (Mohr et al. 2010; Özgünen et al. 2010; Chmura et al. 2017). However, in hot and humid environments, top-level players modulate their activity pattern, lowering physical activity while maintaining technical-tactical efficiency (Nassis et al. 2015). This is possible by maintaining the level of psychomotor fitness. Why is this happening? Perhaps because, as claimed by Chmura and Nazar (2010), the highest efficiency of the central nervous system occurs with higher fatigue tolerance.

Once again, it turned out that the psychomotor fatigue threshold (T_PF) occurs at a higher running speed than the lactate threshold (T_LA), even in difficult thermal conditions such as the lowest heat stress limit. In our research, T_PF occurs at a running speed of 14.25 km·h^− 1, which is significantly higher than the T_LA speed (13.43 km·h^− 1). In such conditions the physical efforts generated a great amount of heat which in short intervals reached 720 W·m^− 2. At the same time intensive processes of heat loss by convection and evaporation were noted. These were intensified by air movement. In spite of this, during short T_LA and T_PF phases the net heat storage reached 310–326 W·m^− 2 and at maximal physical effort almost 400 W·m^− 2. In those phases the physiological subjective temperature registered by thermal sensors at the skin reached 48–51°C, which was felt as very hot. In elevated air temperature (28.5°C) and air movement (2 m·s^− 1) in the chamber a significant amount of sweat was generated and evaporated from the skin. In consecutive phases of the experiment evaporative water loss reached 976–1195 ml per hour. One should remember that each phase of the experiment lasted 2–3 minutes and such great values of M, S and EWL did not present a risk of overheating and dehydration of the body (compare Kampmann et al. 2012). Intensification of sweating is an effective way to reduce the risk of overheating, both in sport and working environments (Nielsen 1996; Smolander 1987; de Freitas and Ryken 1989; Błażejczyk and Szyguła 2004).

Comparing the research of Chmura and Nazar (2010) and Konefał et al. (2022) performed in thermoneutral conditions, the results of our research showed that in heat stress conditions the T_PF occurs at lower running speeds: by 0.23 km/h and 0.75 km/h, respectively. This proves lower tolerance of the CNS to increasing fatigue under heat stress conditions. It follows that difficult ambient conditions are conducive to a significant acceleration of the occurrence of the T_PF. At the lowest heat stress limit, runners achieve optimal psychomotor performance faster (at lower running intensity). This is beneficial from the point of view of technical and tactical activity of soccer players (Nassis et al. 2015). On the other hand, the T_LA, regardless of climatic conditions, was at a relatively constant level in all the mentioned studies. It should be emphasized that the temperature of 28.5°C with humidity below 60% is the lower limit at which the high risk of heat stress begins (Grantham et al. 2010). Presumably, a higher value of ambient temperature or relative air humidity would cause a deeper physiological response, e.g. changes in the lactate threshold (Tyler et al. 2016).

When analysing the T_PF at the lower heat stress limit in the context of practical use, it is interesting what percentage of the maximum values of physiological parameters accompanies the shortest reaction time, the highest level of differentiation of audiovisual stimuli and making optimal decisions. According to our research, under these conditions, the T_PF occurs at 84% of maximum running speed and 52% of maximum LA concentration. In addition, the T_PF occurs at 91% HR_max, 73% VE_max, and 84% VO2_max. Paying attention to the percentage value of the maximum lactate concentration, it can be concluded that the value recorded in heat stress is not too high. There are studies showing that even with a higher percentage of the maximum lactate concentration – up to 57% – and rapidly increasing fatigue, the efficiency of the central nervous system may still be optimal (Chmura and Nazar 2010). When an athlete is in heat stress, it causes a rapid increase in all analysed parameters, the most noticeable of which is an increase in heart rate (Boonruksa et al. 2020; Coker et al. 2020).

In the modern game of soccer, large reserves are seen in the optimal performance of players, and in this aspect a new quality is sought (Mota et al. 2023). In order to implement information about T_PF in soccer training, percentage values are needed to determine when it occurs. One of the most commonly used physiological parameters by which we can assess the moment of occurrence and then monitor the load on the T_PF is %HRmax (Muñoz-López and Naranjo-Orellana 2020). In addition, %VO₂max can also be used in practice (Wingo 2015). In our research, in heat stress CRT shortened with increasing exercise intensity of young soccer players, to approx. 84% of VO₂max (HR – 177 bpm), and then rapidly increased, and in research of Chmura et al. (1994) at 75% of VO₂max (HR – 164 bpm). The values were lower probably due to the tests being performed in a more comfortable environment (Coker et al. 2020).

Monitoring loads at the threshold of psychomotor fatigue allows one to push the limit of the highest efficiency of the CNS towards ever higher intensity of effort and ever greater tolerance of increasing fatigue in the brain. The cause of exercise fatigue is complex (Lin and Kuo 2013). One of the neurotransmitters associated with central fatigue is serotonin. It is well documented that prolonged exercise increases serotonin levels (Steinberg et al. 1998; AbuMoh’d et al. 2020) as opposed to intermittent exercise (Eichelberger and Bilodeau 2007). In our study, the level of serotonin concentration steadily increased with increasing load in the progressive test. At the threshold of psychomotor fatigue, it was 93% of SER_max. However, despite the study being conducted at the lowest heat stress limit, the level of this parameter in all subsequent measurements was within the physiological norm (ISO/DIS 7933 (2004)). In order to better understand the efficiency of the CNS functioning at the threshold of psychomotor fatigue, further research is needed, also taking into account other neurotransmitters such as dopamine, adrenaline, noradrenaline and tryptophan, including in conditions of heat stress (Meeusen et al. 2006; Klass et al. 2016; Robertson and Marino 2016).

The authors are fully aware of many factors that could have influenced the results of the present analyses. One limitation was the performance of the tests in a climatic chamber. Also, the effort during the tests was performed on a treadmill, which is not specific to soccer. Therefore, these results should be treated with caution. In order to better understand CNS performance, more complex psychomotor tests that are more sensitive to hot environmental conditions should be included in future research (Piil et al. 2017). It would be advisable to continue research on T_PF in different age groups and training levels, taking into account different CRT measurement methods and different exercise protocols. In addition, it would be worth analysing psychomotor parameters under the influence of higher heat stress.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

In order to use the intensity at the T_PF threshold in practice, it is proposed to first determine the psychomotor fatigue threshold based on the course of changes in speed and correctness of reaction (CRT) during exercise with increasing load. After determining the T_PF, one can start implementing a system of exercises that stimulate the body to break the fatigue barrier in the brain. For example:

Run with increasing intensity until reaching the lactate threshold (2 minutes), then continue running with the threshold load for 3 minutes, then accelerate for 30 seconds until reaching the intensity at the psychomotor threshold. Then, we perform a 15-second run with a constant intensity occurring at the psychomotor threshold. Next, we move on to active rest, lasting 3 minutes. We carry out active recovery with the use of balls. The load is repeated once in a training session, and twice in a weekly microcycle (Chmura 2014).

The implementation of such exercise will allow the T_PF to shift towards higher loads and greater tolerance of the brain to increasing fatigue. Intensities at thresholds can be measured in the simplest way by measuring HR. It can only be used for well-prepared aerobic endurance athletes from the U-17 groups.

It was confirmed that at the lowest heat stress limit, the threshold of psychomotor fatigue, which reflects the highest efficiency of the central nervous system, occurs at a higher running speed than the lactate threshold.

At the lowest heat stress limit, athletes achieve optimal psychomotor efficiency faster (at lower running intensity) than in thermoneutral conditions (based on comparison with other studies). This proves a lower tolerance of the CNS to increasing fatigue under heat stress conditions.

For practical use, it has been shown that at the lowest heat stress limit, T_PF occurs at 84% of maximum running speed and 52% of maximum LA concentration, and at 93% SERmax, 91% HRmax, 73% VEmax and 84% VO₂max. It should be emphasized, however, that these are very individualized reactions depending, among other factors, on age and level of training.

The findings from this study may facilitate the understanding of physiological and psychomotor reactions at the borderline between some and great thermal discomfort. This will enable coaches and coaching staff to optimize training sessions and match assumptions in more challenging environments.

Our results show that before the start of exercise experiments in elevated air temperature and humidity it is necessary to verify the level of thermal and hygric stress to protect against the risk of overheating, especially in the young population. In our experiment we applied for this purpose air movement, which reduced heat stress to a safe level.

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The effect of the lowest heat stress limit conditions on psychomotor fatigue threshold in soccer players

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Abstract

INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subjects

Procedures

Ambient micrometeorological conditions

Testing protocol

Incremental exercise test and tested parameters

Statistical analyses

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

CONCLUSION

References

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