The literature review was premised on the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model (Koehler & Mishra, 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The model highlights the critical components while teaching with technology: Content, Pedagogy, and Technology knowledge. These components' relationships and interactions are essential in technology implementation. Teacher indicator factors play a critical role in effective ICT implementation in universities. The factors include having the right attitude to enable one to utilize the potential of the technology. Therefore, teachers need The review to be conceptualized on teachers’ self-efficacies, ICT implementation, and the theoretical background supporting the study.
Teachers’ Self-efficacy
Bandura (2018), self-efficacy is the instructors' confidence in the perceived likelihood of using ICT in teaching and learning. Further, self-efficacy is the belief and judgment in the performance of a technological task. Teacher self–efficacy is the belief and judgment of teachers to achieve the expected results of learners. In the broad sense, self-efficacy entails executing conditions and behaviors to complete specific detailed tasks (Bandura, 2018). Teachers’ beliefs greatly influence learners, enabling teachers to motivate even learners with educational challenges (Goodyear et al., 2021). Research has established that teachers' self-efficacy has played a significant role in learners' outcomes, such as their achievements and motivation, individual determination, passion, and teaching behavior (Schwabsky et al., 2019). Studies have established a positive correlation between teachers' self-efficacy and learners' achievements and motivation (Al Sultan et al., 2018; Nowak, 2019; Shahzad, 2018). Therefore, the study implied a positive correlation between collaboration, institution leadership, and teachers' self-efficacies.
Self-efficacy creates confidence in teachers in implementing technology in teaching and research. Generally, teachers are reluctant to use information communication and technology tools when they lack confidence (Nikolopoulou & Gialamas, 2019). Similarly, Balanskat et al. (2006). Balanskat et al. (2018) note that inadequate knowledge and fear of failure are the main reasons teachers lack enough confidence in ICT implementation. A study by Koliadis (1997) established that self-efficacy makes a realistic prediction of behavior in teachers' utilization of ICT in the teaching processes. Similarly, Alexander et al. (2014) demonstrated that computer self-efficacy is significantly related to computer technology. According to Teo (2019), envisage technology use and actual use prediction. The study further confirms Compeau (2015) findings on educators with high self-efficacy who used ICT tools often and have less anxiety in ICT use. Additionally, Viel-Ruma et al. (2019) confirm that self-efficacy correlates with the use and development of modern technology. Therefore, this implies that self-efficacy is essential in understanding teachers’ characteristics and influence ICT implementation.
In addition, teachers' self-efficacy is a crucial determinant of the capabilities and tools required to undertake a specific task (Baker et al., 2018). Therefore, in ICT implementation, the teachers' self-efficacy, knowledge, and experience greatly influence ICT implementation. Robertson et al. (2018) reiterate that self-efficacy intersects with functional expertise and other related skills and behaviors. According to Saefi et al. (2020), habits influence teachers' self-efficacy. Therefore, in light of these assertions, university teachers’ self-efficacy is believed to significantly influence learners' performance and the institution environment since they are the implementers of the technology (Elida et al., 2019).
A study by Robertson et al. (2018) on Self-efficacy and ICT integration by Teachers’ in Saudi Arabia: Matching Policy and Practice used 325 participants pre-service teachers’ from the Education faculty. The findings established that many teachers have good expertise with computer tasks. Thus, their level of self-efficacy as instructors increases with the experience of constant technology use and qualifications. Therefore, the findings implied that increasing the teachers' accessibility, training, and exposure to technology contributes significantly to improved teachers' self-efficacy and consequently enhances technology implementation.
In a study by Koliadis et al. (2017), self-efficacy predicts behavior when using technology. Similarly, Teo (2009) observes that teachers’ self-efficacy significantly influences teachers' intention to adopt technology during instruction. The results concur with B. A. Higgins (2018), who established that educators with high self-efficacies used technology more frequently than educators with low self-efficacies. Further, Evans et al. (2019) study showed that successful experiences with strong can greatly influence technology development. (Wood et al., 2018) study established that technology is a continuous process with new advancements taking place every day, thus rendering old technology obsolete; therefore, teachers need to keep upgrading their technology levels to remain relevant constantly.
Wilberforce et al. (2021) recommended that educators who held strong beliefs on technology educating todays’ learners could be slow down in utilization of accessible tools since they are afraid of troubleshooting technology devices during instruction. Levett-Jones et al. (2019) reiterate that teachers who lack confidence in technology are reluctant to integrate technology in classroom teaching. The study further revealed that inadequate technological knowledge, skills, and fear decrease the morale of practicing teachers to use the technology. A survey by (Bingimlas, 2019) established that teachers who had inadequate confidence rarely used ICT in instruction. Likewise, educators who had insufficient expertise and low exposure to ICT were apprehensive in technology integration.
Further, Saridakis et al. (2016) established that computer efficacy correlates with integrating new technologies in the education sector; However, (Sigala et al., 2018) argue that teachers devoid of technology confidence are reluctant to use technological devices in the classroom. The lack of confidence is necessitated by limited knowledge and skills and fear of failure. Similarly, according to (Pujol et al., 2018) most teachers who lack confidence barely use computers and lack the necessary capacity to use technology in instruction. Paraskeva et al. (2018) reiterate the strong correlation of computer efficacies with the implementation and development of contemporary technology used in education. However, most teachers lack familiarity and confidence with ICT technology, thus becoming an impediment to ICT implementations in universities since they necessitate any change in curriculum content and delivery methods (Law et al., 2008). Therefore, due to immense opportunities and need by teachers to learn how to redress conceptual challenges, understanding learners' prior content-related understanding, and building on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies using ICT motivated the study. Further, the implementation of ICT in Kenyan universities is a relatively new concept with limited operationalization. Little has been done on teachers’ self-efficacy despite being vital in understanding university teachers’ characteristics and effectiveness in implementing. The current study findings agree with Jones (2019), limited knowledge, skills, and fear of failure make teachers avoid technology. The ANOVA results indicated an F value of 2.379 and a significance of 0.004 at the 0.05 significance level. They were implying that teachers' self-efficacy significantly influences ICT implementation. Therefore, the need to support teachers’ self-efficacy to acquire the necessary ICT knowledge and skills for effective ICT implementation.
ICT Implementation
These are practices and choices made by individuals who want to implement a specific innovation. (C. Buabeng-Andoh, 2021) The implementation of ICT in institutions of higher learning results from the choices and procedures made by the university leadership in applying technical knowledge to enhance their operations and output (Khan et al., 2017). Generally, ICT implementation is a process that ought to be complete, where all the critical components are put together to make a whole (Hernández et al., 2020). ICT implementation uses tools that use research, evaluation, organization, and communication of information (Kravchenko, 2019). Further, the implementation uses computers, projectors, audial, visual technology, and other tools for instruction (Bariu, 2020). Moreover, these tools are used in teaching and learning, researching internet technology, and university management (Stone, 2020).
ICT implementation improves the learning environment as learners' independence depends not solely on their instructors (Alsalem, 2018). ICT has challenged and transformed the conventional teaching pedagogies, strategies, methods and contributed to adequate and reliable instructional methods (Dilekli et al., 2018, 2020; Kubiatko et al., 2020). Thus, becoming an essential component of educational reforms needed in the 21st century (Buabeng-Andoh, 2019). Further, ICT has enhanced flexibility through teleconferencing, where audial and video communication is enabled, promoting review and recording of lectures; thus, promoting accessibility by reducing physical class attendance (Zhang et al., 2019). Feedback is provided through interaction with the teachers (Rucinski et al., 2018). The implementation further enhances communication among learners and teachers (Hemsley, 2002).In addition, it enhances inclusivity where the physically challenged and the disabled learn irrespective of their location (Sadler-Smith, Down, & Lean, 2000; Standen et al., 2001). Further, convenience is enhanced among teachers and learners as learning is not limited to space and location (Unwin, 2019)
Research has established that effective ICT implementation in Learning institutions depends on learners' self-confidence competency, technology accessibility, administration support, values, and beliefs (Hacker et al., 2019; Irfan et al., 2019; Lund et al., 2019; Tondeur et al., 2019). However, the studies did not conclusively employ teachers' self-efficacy despite being a critical influencing factor determining effective ICT implementation. Similarly, teachers; implementation of ICT in universities in Kenya has limited attention because ICT is an emerging technology. The empirical literature has established critical technological gaps in ICT implementation in the curriculum, thus increasing the knowledge gap between the developed and developing countries. Teachers being the change agents in any curriculum innovation, should possess the necessary ’ skills and knowledge pivotal in any creation or curriculum adjustment that necessitates changes in content and methods (Salas-Pilco et al., 2018). Their roles are critical since they are directly involved in ICT implementation and influence their learners to use technology in their areas of jurisdiction (Coyer et al., 2019). Therefore, the justification to investigate teachers’ self-efficacy and their influence on ICT implementation.
Conceptual Background
The study was premised on the Technological, Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model in Fig. 1. The framework was used to research the effective technology implementation into the learning context, and the kind of knowledge teachers need for Information Communication Technology (ICT) implementation. The three domains of knowledge, technological knowledge, content knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge, informed the theoretical framework's design. Generally, effective ICT implementation involves a shift in existing practices in pedagogy and the content domain. Therefore, 21st-century teachers are challenged to consider their teaching context and go beyond technology knowledge to stimulate educational methods that innovatively use technology interaction, pedagogy, and content. Thus, the importance of the framework to consider ICT implementation by university teachers.
The model shows the understanding and illustration of concepts using technology and pedagogical techniques that apply technology in productive ways in teaching learners according to their needs. Further, the theoretical framework provides teachers with an understanding of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, redress conceptual challenges, understand learners' prior content-related understanding, and build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones.
The model contains three knowledge domains: content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and technological knowledge (TK), which are intertwined in teaching. The interaction of the three domains forms four subfields: technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and TPACK. The TPACK framework is applied in the ICT implementation study to assess the suitability of technology in teaching, choosing ICT to promote teaching, selecting the technology of learning evaluation, and serving as a reference for applying ICT in the classroom of various subjects.
Content, Pedagogy, and Technology knowledge. Relationship and interactions among these components play an essential role in technology implementation. The three domains (content, pedagogy, and Technology) form the foundation of the TPACK framework. The TPACK Model understanding is based on content, pedagogical and technological knowledge. The framework incorporates the general performance and conceptual representation using technologies; the pedagogic techniques use technology to teach content that suits learners’ needs. The framework provides knowledge on a difficult or easy concept to learn and addresses conceptual setbacks. Learners' understanding of content issues and general assumptions is well exemplified.
Therefore, teachers need the relevant self-efficacy to utilize and apply these technologies for creative instruction. The teachers’ self-efficacy allows them to predict the possible outcome when the technologies change correctly. For instance, when ICT is implemented in universities, teachers need to understand its impact on specific subjects and research areas while considering the uniqueness of the disciplines. Teachers’ self-efficacy is crucial to implementing the ICT process since confidence in using the technology makes it easier and more enjoyable. The TPACK model imports the need for intertwining technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge to implement ICT in universities successfully. However, diversity challenges exist across countries and regions due to contextual differences, instruction settings, diversified understanding of content, pedagogy, the technological know-how of teachers, differentiated learner characteristics, and different technologies applied. Similarly, it’s worth noting that no single technical solution applies to all teachers, all disciplines, or courses. However, the available and accessible technology strongly influences how teachers interlink the TPACK elements to determine the success of ICT implementation.