2.1 Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
Vygotsky (1978) posited that the sociocultural theory of interaction plays a crucial role in facilitating the acquisition of target language functions and structures (L2). Concurrently, the interaction hypothesis holds significant implications for language teaching methods. Moreover, communicative language teaching has emerged as a proposed and employed approach to effectively foster conversational interactive competencies in English among both teachers and learners. This theoretical underpinning and instructional approach bear profound implications for language learning and pedagogy, aligning with contemporary language education trends.
Social and cultural research makes a significant contribution by providing a framework to elucidate natural phenomena through the integration of pertinent structures, definitions, and propositions. By synthesizing these elements, social and cultural research offers a systematic understanding of complex social phenomena. In the context of this study, the focus lies in the examination of teacher-student interactions within the classroom's social milieu. Such interactions are subject to multifaceted influences stemming from cultural, social, educational, and cognitive factors. Through a comprehensive analysis, this research endeavors to shed light on the intricate dynamics shaping teacher-student interactions, contributing to a deeper comprehension of the underlying mechanisms at play within the educational environment.
In the realm of language learning, Vygotsky (1978) contends that the learning process is facilitated through active engagement in dialogues, wherein language is employed in authentic communication settings. This interactive approach enables learners to acquire knowledge and cultivate practical language skills, fostering a heightened awareness of language application in real-world contexts. Moreover, the social cultural theory underscores the significance of positive social environments within the classroom, as such conducive settings facilitate the learning process. Notably, interpersonal communication serves as the linchpin for transitioning from a state of unfamiliarity to a state of familiarity with the language (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). Consequently, educators must create ample opportunities for interpersonal communication to transpire.
The far-reaching impact of the social cultural theory is evident in numerous studies dedicated to the teaching and learning of second languages. As highlighted by Johnson (2006), a profound understanding of social culture can indeed reshape our perceptions of second language characteristics, particularly among English teachers. Leveraging these insights, the social and cultural theory provides a valuable framework to comprehend the fundamental principles governing English communication between teachers and students within the classroom milieu.
2.2. Long's interaction hypothesis
Long's interaction hypothesis has played a pivotal role in establishing a significant groundwork for language teaching methodologies (Cummins & Davison, 2007; Mackey & Polio, 2009).
Primarily, Long's interaction hypothesis (1983) represents a progressive extension of Krashen's input hypothesis, serving as an initial stage in the conversational interaction continuum. Long posits that the acquisition of language is expedited when individuals receive input in a conducive manner, and conversely, hindered when the input is less favorable. Moreover, Long contends that altering communicative interaction enhances the acquisition of knowledge and fosters language acquisition, as it engenders a conducive environment for the acquisition process (Lightbown & Spada, 1993: 30).
Secondly, Long (1996) highlights the significance of conversational interaction not only in providing learners with positive or negative experiences but also in influencing their attitude towards the learning process (Long, 1996, as cited in Ellis, 1999). This underscores that the dialogue between teachers and students not only aids learners in obtaining favorable input, commonly referred to as positive evidence (Wei, 2012), but also enables them to acquire information about the limitations of their language knowledge, known as negative evidence. Fang (2010) further corroborates this notion by reaffirming the pivotal role of conversational interaction between teachers and students, which offers additional resources for language learning: (i) establishing connections with learners' prior experiences in a second language, and (ii) serving as an "attention-getting device," directing the learners' focus towards unfamiliar language features (Fang, 2010, as cited in Alahmadi, 2019). In essence, certain elements of language acquisition can transpire during the course of such interactions.
2.3 Conversational teaching methods in English (CLT)
The Conversational Language Teaching (CLT) approach aims to facilitate learners' natural and effective use of language, enhance their communication skills, and foster active engagement in learning activities within the target language (Owen, Razali, & Elhaj, 2019: 468). This methodology places a paramount emphasis on communicative interaction competence, surpassing the sole focus on language structure accuracy (Christianto, 2019). Consequently, CLT serves as a teaching method that fosters diverse levels of interaction and communication, providing learners with opportunities to practice language skills through assuming various roles during communication activities (Ahmed, 2016; Albahri, Yang, & Moustakim, 2018). The acquisition of conversational competence in the target language requires learners' active involvement in practical activities (Hiep, 2007), where communication-oriented situations are inherently integrated (Alwazir & Shukri, 2016). Moreover, CLT places significant emphasis on the meaningful exchange of information within the target language (Emma, 2018) and endeavors to maximize exposure to the target language while minimizing the use of the native language (L1) (Littlewood & Yu, 2011). Consequently, the utilization of L1 by students is discouraged or even prohibited in many foreign language classrooms.
The introduction of CLT to Asia in the 1970s was based on the premise of fostering communication capacity through meaningful interactive activities (Nelleke & Stephen, 2017: 329). Extensive research has recognized the merits and effectiveness of CLT within English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructional settings. Firstly, CLT actively encourages students to engage in the target language (TL) by participating in interactive classroom activities, thereby enhancing their confidence and language competence (Akram & Mehmood, 2011; Rahman & Karim, 2015; Rohyani, Hadi, & Hafidah, 2020; Fitriyani, 2020). Secondly, CLT has proven to heighten learners' interest and awareness of the target language (Richards, 2006). Thirdly, this approach fosters a close teacher-student relationship (Chang & Goswami, 2011; Rahman, 2015). Consequently, CLT has garnered global recommendations for widespread adoption in numerous countries (Ariatna, 2016; Jahanzaib & Zeeshan, 2017; Noori, 2018; Athawadi, 2019).
In recent years, CLT has gained widespread adoption in educational institutions across Vietnam, encompassing various levels of schooling. Notably, a nationwide program aimed at implementing the communicative language teaching method was initiated in 2010. This program articulates three fundamental principles concerning communication, tasks, and meaning that serve as the cornerstone for the employed teaching approaches (Moet, 2010). Empirical investigations on the effectiveness of this program have revealed that CLT facilitates teachers in fostering interactive conversational tasks in English, encouraging students' active participation in the learning process. Embracing the perspective of Vietnamese culture, CLT has been recognized as the most efficacious method due to its inherent advantages, feasibility, and suitability for the Vietnamese populace. Concurrently, it serves as a powerful motivator for Vietnamese students, enhancing their communication abilities, and aligning with the requirements of the globalized context.
2.4 Belonging and conversational interaction between teachers and students
In the realm of psychology, belonging refers to the manifestation of an individual's feelings or attitudes that are congruent with a sense of naturalness or comfort (Yuval-Davis, 2011). Concurrently, a sense of autonomy pertains to a distinct sentiment of connectedness with a group or community, compensating for emotional interactions (Tovar & Simon, 2010: 200). The concept of belonging assumes a pivotal role in addressing the human need for personal development (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). When this need for belongingness is fulfilled, individuals often experience augmented levels of happiness, motivation, and overall physical and mental well-being (Asher & Weeks, 2014).
In the context of education, belonging pertains to the extent of students' engagement and connectedness within the learning environment (Strayhorn, 2008). Within the collective setting, feelings of autonomy are closely associated with social reciprocity, the sense of connection, validation, acceptance, care, and respect. These dimensions hold significant significance both at the individual and collective levels (Strayhorn, 2012). Consequently, students' perception of autonomy encompasses both cognitive and emotional elements, arising from their perceived value within the educational context. It frequently manifests in positive responses and behaviors exhibited by learners.
Multiple empirical investigations have highlighted the correlation between students' academic proficiency and the presence of conversational interactions between teachers and students, as demonstrated by favorable educational outcomes (Gibson et al., 2004; Cemalcilar, 2010). Moreover, belonging is not solely associated with the development of psychological processes, but also emerges as a pivotal factor influencing positive learning attitudes, motivation, social outlooks, interactive tendencies, and academic achievement (Ostermann, 2000). The notion of student belonging within educational institutions is regarded as a potent driver for motivation and expectations (Hernández, Robins, Widaman, & Conger, 2016). Consequently, these research inquiries bear essential significance for educational institutions as they underscore the imperative of fostering an environment conducive to belonging, thereby enhancing students' learning experiences and performance (Peacock, Cowan, Irvine, & Williams, 2020). The perception of possessing a sense of self-control and being consistently welcomed and supported empowers students to persevere and seek assistance when required (Cuellar & Johnson, 2016; Museus, 2017). Thus, the establishment of an emotionally nurturing learning space assumes critical importance in nurturing students' constructive awareness, which in turn can exert a profoundly positive impact on their learning outcomes. Hypothesis 1: The cultivation of a sense of belonging and emotional well-being in the educational milieu is likely to significantly enhance students' learning endeavors and achievements.
2.5. Expectations and conversational interactions between teachers and students
In the academic context, a crucial determinant affecting the emotional aspect within the classroom setting is the interplay of expectations between teachers and students. Expectations are delineated as anticipated actions or conditions, encompassing subjective assessments concerning the likelihood of future occurrences or their absence (Fauzi & Amirudin, 2019). Extensive investigations in the domain of second language acquisition have substantiated that teacher and learner expectations constitute significant variables capable of influencing the dynamics of the teaching and learning process in the context of second or foreign language acquisition (Nhapulo, 2013).
Polat (1994) posits that the teaching of second or foreign languages is intricately molded by the contextual conditions prevailing in the educational environment, wherein conversational interactions between teachers and students assume paramount importance. Consequently, teaching should not be isolated from its cultural and socioeconomic context. As such, it is plausible that the expectations held by the EFL teachers are diverse and exhibit variations across cultures (Jacobson, 2013). These expectations wield a notable influence not only on their instructional behavior and practices but also on the nature of their relationships with students (Kazemi & Soleimani, 2016). It is evident, however, that excessively high and unrealistic expectations from FL teachers concerning a student's academic standing may lead to detrimental effects on their overall performance (Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2010; Davies, 2015; Kamstra, 2020). Consequently, it is crucial for teachers to maintain high but realistic expectations for student achievement (Mulisa & Kassahun, 2019: 30). Furthermore, teachers should adeptly manage their expectations to harness their potential for self-actualization and effectively educate their students (Toksoy & Acar, 2019).
Similar to teachers, L2/FL students also hold certain expectations regarding conversational teacher-student interaction during the process of teaching, learning, and assessment. Notably, various recent studies (e.g., Timmis, 2002; Simon & Taverniers, 2011; Tergujeff, 2013) have shed light on the fact that many students anticipate their teachers to demonstrate native-like pronunciation through conversational interactions. Additionally, a qualitative study conducted by Trejo (2007) examined student expectations within the English department at the University of Mexico. The findings revealed that students expect their teachers to exhibit genuine care and expertise, rather than merely serving as knowledge transmitters. Moreover, L2/FL learners harbor specific preferences for certain pedagogical approaches and techniques employed by their teachers. For instance, Lobo and Gurney (2014) discovered that students expect to be taught essential characteristics of the target language, with a focus on acquiring practical and professional English skills.
Hypothesis 2: Both teachers and students in the L2/FL context hold particular expectations regarding conversational teacher-student interaction, which can significantly impact the language learning process.
2.6 Relationships and conversational interactions between teachers and students
In the field of education, the teacher-student relationship refers to the level of respect, understanding, and concern demonstrated by both teachers and students during their interactions (Gibbons, 2019: 12). These three factors play a crucial and essential role in fostering the relationship between teachers and students. A study conducted by Krane et al. (2017) revealed that students develop positive relationships with their teachers when the teacher acknowledges and communicates respect towards the students. This relationship is further strengthened by teachers' comprehension of students' psychological needs (Smit, de Brabander, & Martens, 2014). When teachers exhibit genuine interest in their students, the teacher-student relationship flourishes, subsequently enhancing students' learning needs (Calhoun, 2019). As all students within the classroom participate in a relational process, during which expectations are formed and information is shared (Frymier & Houser, 2000), cultivating strong relationships between teachers and learners significantly impacts the teaching and learning process, particularly with regard to conversational interactions between teachers and students. However, it is essential to recognize that this influence operates on two fronts: when the teacher-student relationship exerts a positive influence, it enhances students' potential for academic excellence, but when the relationship is characterized by negative influences, it may lead to adverse effects on the student's academic outcomes (Agyekum, 2019).
The realm of the FL education has witnessed the considerable advantages stemming from positive and effective conversational interactions between teachers and students. Noteworthy research outcomes from Lee et al. (2009) and Velayutham & Aldridge (2013) underscore the significance of a positive teacher-student relationship in bolstering performance within FL classrooms. Specifically, such relationships have been found to alleviate students' anxiety and foster a more comfortable environment for engaging in conversational interaction activities in English with their teachers (Wei, Brok & Zhou, 2007). Furthermore, Al-Hoorie (2017) highlights the influential role of teachers who cultivate respect for their students in the classroom, as this contributes significantly to students' motivation and willingness to communicate in the target language. Moreover, effective teacher-student relationships have been observed to enhance students' English proficiency by honing their communication skills and fostering the utilization of effective learning strategies (Ma et al., 2018). In fact, positive relationships between students and teachers also serve to amplify students' attitudes and enthusiasm for learning the English language within the classroom (Bouras & Keskes, 2014; Calle, 2019). Such benefits hold particular significance for students characterized by low academic motivation and limited interest in learning English. These findings emphasize the vital role of establishing constructive teacher-student relationships in FL education, as they offer a multifaceted array of advantages conducive to students' overall language learning experience and achievements.
The research conducted by Uysal and Güven (2018) elucidates that the absence of conversational interaction between teachers and students bears adverse consequences on the teacher-student relationship. This dearth of interaction leads students to conceal their ideas during the learning process and undermines the recognition of the discipline required within the foreign language learning environment. In many Asian countries, particularly in Vietnam, the educational context and student learning programs are heavily ingrained in a rigid curriculum, which, in turn, places significant demands on teachers and leads to overcrowded classrooms. Consequently, both teachers and students find themselves in challenging situations, potentially resulting in conflicts within their relationships (Huynh, 2017). Presently in Vietnam, the approach to teaching and learning English has been gradually transitioning from a teacher-centered methodology to a learner-centered approach. This shift aims to empower students to become more autonomous in their learning journey and affords them the opportunity to construct knowledge actively, rather than being passive recipients of knowledge from their teachers (Nguyen et al., 2006; Nguyen, 2005). Based on the above discussion, the hypothesis can be proposed as follows:
In the field of education, the teacher-student relationship refers to the level of respect, understanding, and concern demonstrated by both teachers and students during their interactions (Gibbons, 2019: 12). These three factors play a crucial and essential role in fostering the relationship between teachers and students. A study conducted by Krane et al. (2017) revealed that students develop positive relationships with their teachers when the teacher acknowledges and communicates respect towards the students. This relationship is further strengthened by teachers' comprehension of students' psychological needs (Smit, de Brabander, & Martens, 2014). When teachers exhibit genuine interest in their students, the teacher-student relationship flourishes, subsequently enhancing students' learning needs (Calhoun, 2019). As all students within the classroom participate in a relational process, during which expectations are formed and information is shared (Frymier & Houser, 2000), cultivating strong relationships between teachers and learners significantly impacts the teaching and learning process, particularly with regard to conversational interactions between teachers and students. However, it is essential to recognize that this influence operates on two fronts: when the teacher-student relationship exerts a positive influence, it enhances students' potential for academic excellence, but when the relationship is characterized by negative influences, it may lead to adverse effects on the student's academic outcomes (Agyekum, 2019).
The realm of the FL education has witnessed the considerable advantages stemming from positive and effective conversational interactions between teachers and students. Noteworthy research outcomes from Lee et al. (2009) and Velayutham & Aldridge (2013) underscore the significance of a positive teacher-student relationship in bolstering performance within FL classrooms. Specifically, such relationships have been found to alleviate students' anxiety and foster a more comfortable environment for engaging in conversational interaction activities in English with their teachers (Wei, Brok & Zhou, 2007). Furthermore, Al-Hoorie (2017) highlights the influential role of teachers who cultivate respect for their students in the classroom, as this contributes significantly to students' motivation and willingness to communicate in the target language. Moreover, effective teacher-student relationships have been observed to enhance students' English proficiency by honing their communication skills and fostering the utilization of effective learning strategies (Ma et al., 2018). In fact, positive relationships between students and teachers also serve to amplify students' attitudes and enthusiasm for learning the English language within the classroom (Bouras & Keskes, 2014; Calle, 2019). Such benefits hold particular significance for students characterized by low academic motivation and limited interest in learning English. These findings emphasize the vital role of establishing constructive teacher-student relationships in FL education, as they offer a multifaceted array of advantages conducive to students' overall language learning experience and achievements.
The research conducted by Uysal and Güven (2018) elucidates that the absence of conversational interaction between teachers and students bears adverse consequences on the teacher-student relationship. This dearth of interaction leads students to conceal their ideas during the learning process and undermines the recognition of the discipline required within the foreign language learning environment. In many Asian countries, particularly in Vietnam, the educational context and student learning programs are heavily ingrained in a rigid curriculum, which, in turn, places significant demands on teachers and leads to overcrowded classrooms. Consequently, both teachers and students find themselves in challenging situations, potentially resulting in conflicts within their relationships (Huynh, 2017). Presently in Vietnam, the approach to teaching and learning English has been gradually transitioning from a teacher-centered methodology to a learner-centered approach. This shift aims to empower students to become more autonomous in their learning journey and affords them the opportunity to construct knowledge actively, rather than being passive recipients of knowledge from their teachers (Nguyen et al., 2006; Nguyen, 2005). Based on the above discussion, the hypothesis can be proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 3: Positive teacher-student conversational interactions positively impact learning outcomes and attitudes, while their absence may negatively affect academic performance and engagement.
2.7. Motivation and conversational interaction
In its broadest sense, motivation is the driving force that initiates, sustains, and directs goal-oriented behavior (Gonzalez, 2008; Woon et al., 2016). Within the domain of FL teaching and learning, Dörnyei (1994) posits that motivation constitutes a significant determinant of learners' academic achievement. Moreover, Wang (2006: 32) asserts that motivation serves as a crucial variable in second language acquisition, exhibiting correlations with achievement levels and language proficiency. Given its role in mediating attitudes toward the target language and outputs in the language learning process (Mantiri, 2015; Santana et al., 2016), motivation emerges as a pivotal factor influencing success in FL learning. The perspectives of linguists and the aforementioned research findings converge to emphasize the indispensable role of motivation in FL learning and its profound impact on students' academic achievements.
In the Vietnamese context, English language learning primarily takes place within classroom settings, wherein teachers play a crucial role in enhancing students' motivation. Dörnyei (2001) proposes a strategic framework for teachers to foster students' motivation in English learning, comprising four key components: i) establishing conducive learning conditions to engender motivation, ii) instilling initial motivations, iii) nurturing and safeguarding motivation, and iv) promoting positive self-assessment. To begin, the creation of favorable conditions to elicit motivation can be achieved through cultivating a friendly and comfortable classroom atmosphere. Moreover, teachers should foster initial motivation in students by reinforcing values and attitudes pertaining to language learners (Dörnyei, 2001: 124) or developing teaching materials tailored to students' specific needs (Dörnyei, 2003: 24). Maintaining and safeguarding motivation demands the promotion of learner autonomy and the incorporation of enjoyable lessons. Lastly, fostering positive self-assessment in students entails providing motivational feedback and elevating learner satisfaction (Dörnyei, 2001). This comprehensive approach empowers teachers in Vietnam to effectively motivate students in their English language learning journey.
In addition to Dörnyei's (2001) motivational strategy model, researchers have identified several other approaches that teachers can employ to motivate students in the context of foreign language or English learning. Notably, career development emerges as a prominent type of motivation displayed by students, as revealed in the study by Lobo and Gurney (2014). In this regard, incorporating lecture content relevant to students' future career prospects can serve as a motivational catalyst. Furthermore, the use of teacher humor has been found to enhance students' motivation to learn English by fostering a refreshing and joyful classroom atmosphere, creating a sense of camaraderie between students and teachers (Idayanti, 2019). Moreover, Kurt and Kurt's (2018) research conducted at Namik Kemal University highlights the significance of instructors' personal characteristics and professional competence, as well as the quality of interactions and regular communication between instructors and students, as crucial factors influencing student motivation to learn English. Additionally, the establishment of a conducive and relaxed classroom environment has been observed to significantly correlate with student persistence and foster favorable motivation in EFL learning, particularly through conversational interactions between teachers and students (Lodhi et al., 2019; Mutlu & Yıldırım, 2019). Incorporating these diverse motivational approaches can empower teachers to effectively inspire and sustain students' enthusiasm in their FL or English learning journey.
When addressing the topic of learner motivation, it becomes imperative to acknowledge the pivotal role of teachers' motivation, which significantly influences their professional practice and pedagogical achievements (Agezo, 2010; Salifu & Seyram Agbenyega, 2013). As teachers' language competence improves, their students may also experience heightened motivation in the teaching and learning process (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Bajorek, Gulliford, & Taskila, 2014; Lamb, 2017). Consequently, teacher motivation emerges as a noteworthy factor that can contribute to students' attitudes, motivation, and overall achievement in L2 or FL learning. In essence, there exists a reciprocal relationship between teacher and student motivation (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Dewaele & Mercer, 2018; Caruso, 2019). Motivated teachers play a crucial role in fostering students' success in learning English, as they are more likely to devise effective and innovative lessons (Bernaus, Wilson & Gardner, 2009; Bajorek, Gulliford, and Taskila, 2014). On the other hand, motivated students can also exert a positive influence on teacher motivation and, consequently, on their teaching practices (Kamstra, 2020). This interplay between teacher and student motivation underscores the significance of both elements in the language learning process.
Hypothesis 4: Teacher and student motivation in foreign language learning reciprocally influence students' attitudes, language proficiency, and academic achievements.