The role of animal agriculture, especially the poultry sub-sector, in the developing economies of the world has been severally stressed (NEA 2020). However, the potential of this sub-sector to optimally support the fast-growing population in developing countries is limited due to the myriads of challenges facing this industry. Chief among these is the incidence of aflatoxin contamination of feeds which always has severe economic effects on the farmers’ profitability and the productivity of the chickens (Nakavuma et al. 2020). The molds Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus are responsible for naturally producing the mycotoxins called aflatoxins. Agricultural products used in feed production such as groundnut, millet, sorghum, maize, wheat, and soybeans are easily contaminated by aflatoxin because of the favourable attendant pre- and post-harvest conditions predisposing these products to fungal infections. Aflatoxin contamination of agricultural products is so hazardous to both man and animals that only a low concentration is required to cause aflatoxicosis.
Aflatoxicosis is a disease caused by aflatoxin consumption and acute aflatoxicosis could result in death (Mahato et al. 2019). In poultry, hens fed diets containing aflatoxin had been reported having reduced performance indices such as reduced laying efficiency and feed intake as well as compromised health status as indicated by decreased vaccination efficiency, impaired immunity to diseases, and ultimately increased mortality rate (Fouad et al. 2019). Aflatoxins are equally not left out in playing significant roles on cytokines and chemokines. Cytokines and chemokines, like hormones and neurotransmitters, are potent signaling molecules very vital in living cells to mediate intercellular communication (Arango and Descoteaux 2014). Cytokines, both the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory, regulate the immune response in health and disease situations. However, the potential of cytokines to play pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory roles, or both, is dependent on the specific local microenvironments per time (Su et al. 2012). Therefore, it is worthy of note that aflatoxins have been reported to create an enabling environment in adversely affecting the health of animals by inhibiting certain anti-inflammatory cytokines (Marin et al. 2002; Qian et al. 2014) as well as the stimulation of some pro-inflammatory cytokines (Yarru et al. 2009; Huang et al. 2019). Furthermore, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was previously found culpable to cause oxidative damage to the DNA resulting from the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells. Cellular generation of ROS indirectly attacks the membrane phospholipids and gives off various aldehydes which are mutagenic in nature (Benkerroum 2020). Indicators of serum DNA damage such as 8-OHdG (8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine) (Groopman et al. 2008; Sun et al. 2018) and NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) have been reported to be highly favoured by AFB1 (Huang et al. 2019). In another study, AFB1 was found to significantly elevate IL-6 (interleukin 6), IL-1β (interleukin 1 beta) and TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) serum concentrations (Benkerroum 2020). Similarly, Rajput et al. (2019) equally reported serum elevation of IFN-γ as well as TNF-α concentration among others in broiler chickens exposed to AFB1. Traditionally, measurements of serum cytokines are useful biomarkers in the studies of toxicities to highlight the inflammation and immune responses in tissue damage.
Since aflatoxin contamination of agricultural products used in feed production is detrimental to animals, especially poultry birds and pigs, the use of mycotoxin binders, in recent times, is the rule of thumb for commercial feed millers to prevent unwanted contamination of animal feed by aflatoxin. A toxin binder is a substance added to poultry feed in micro amounts capable of neutralizing mycotoxins within the animal’s gastrointestinal tract. A classical example of this is bentonite clay which is effective in binding aflatoxin B1 when added to poultry feed usually at a 2% inclusion rate. However, clay-based toxin binders have their negative effects such as binding nutrients even at lower inclusions, thus, reducing essential nutrient availability needed for growth and production (Kumari and Mohan 2021). For instance, Elliot et al. (2020) highlighted the European Authority for Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report indicating the possibility of binding potential of manganese when bentonite is used at a dosage higher than 0.5% in poultry feed. Away from binding essential micronutrients, the efficacy of medicinal substances, such as coccidiostats, in the feed is also altered by clays. Small protein molecules that are positively charged can also be bound into the interlayer of clay (montmorillonite) through the cation exchange (Damato et al. 2022; Kloprogge and Hartman 2022). Apart from these, many of the clay-based toxin binders are costly and increase the cost of feed production, hence, reducing farmers’ profitability margin.
A novel approach to adopt in solving this problem is, therefore, looking in the direction of using phytogenic-based strategy in mitigating the incidence of aflatoxin in poultry production. Generally speaking, it has been established that phyto-additives have the potential of improving performance and maintaining the physiological status in terms of enhancing the immunity and antioxidant status in birds (Oloruntola et al. 2018). Sida acuta is a common phytotherapeutic plant and rich in bioactive compounds. The leaves of S. acuta are a reservoir of antioxidants possessing anti-inflammatory, anti-cholinergic, anticancer and anti-cytotoxic properties (Mah et al. 2017; Rodrigues and de Oliveira 2020). It is equally a sources of antibacterial, antifungal (Hoffman et al. 2004) as well as anti-hyperglycemic (Okwuosa et al. 2011) activities, etc. This study, hence, focuses on the ameliorative potentials of Sida acuta leaf meal on the serum DNA damage, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines of cocks fed aflatoxin B1 contaminated diets.