Recently, social scientists have placed considerable focus on the connection between inequality, diversity, institutions, and social cohesion. This paper reviews the existing literature in order to examine the effect of access to opportunities in forming social cohesion in ethnic-diverse societies. Studies undertaken by Gesthuizen et al. (2009) provide evidence that suggests a multifaceted dynamic to the influence of diversity, with some highlighting its potential to generate creative solutions, bolster innovation, and construct social capital, while others point to its interference with social cohesion (Dover et al., 2020), it can generate challenges (Kang & Kaplan, 2019). Similarly, the way ethnicity, race, and religion can influence the cohesion of communities and societies is difficult to predict (Chouhoud et al., 2019; Hirschi, 1969). Civic norms are stronger in homogenous and egalitarian societies (Knack & Keefer, 1997) yet conflict theory suggests that diverse societies are more prone to conflict and hostility, resulting in decreased trust (Korol et al., 2023). Studies on organizations and interpersonal trust suggest that ethnic diversity can have a negative effect on social cohesion (Alesina & Ferrara, 2005). Cross-country analyses have associated increasing diversity with decreased trust in government welfare programs (Gründler & Köllner, 2020). Ethnolinguistic heterogeneity has been linked to poor economic growth and social cohesion, especially in African countries, where weak shared norms of reciprocity and trust often prevail (Alcorta et al., 2020). On the other hand, there are certain socioeconomic variables that can help to ensure positive results from diversity. It has been revealed through research that the educational level and wages of individuals had a higher influence on building trust compared to how wealthy the neighborhood (King et al., 2010). It has been demonstrated that engagement and communication between diverse ethnic groups can be an effective way of mitigating the negative repercussions of ethnic diversity (Stolle et al., 2008). Furthermore, several studies have indicated that trust is more prevalent in multicultural societies (Zimdars & Tampubolon, 2012) and enhanced economic growth and productivity have been observed. (Ashraf & Galor, 2013). In conclusion, the literature on the impacts of diversity on social cohesion is highly intricate and inconsistent, contingent upon the particular context and components of social cohesion that are taken into account. Nevertheless, it is evident that granting access to opportunities for all individuals within a diverse population is paramount in achieving optimal trust and cohesion (Chan et al., 2006). It is essential for institutions, namely educational systems, labor markets, and welfare policies, to act as mediators in order to effectively navigate the relationship between inequality, diversity, and social cohesion (Dias-Abey, 2021; Grütter et al., 2018; Page, 2007).
Access to quality education (Juvonen et al., 2019) that is protected from social barriers and equal opportunities for employment are fundamental components for decreasing inequality and encouraging social unity (Omar & Inaba, 2020). Inclusive institutions that provide fairness, justice, and equal rights are essential for creating trust, cooperation, and an overall sense of community (Slee & Tait, 2022). The connection between inequality and social cohesion is an important factor influencing the stability and well-being of societies (Patias et al., 2022). Various scholars have addressed the role of institutions in mediating the relationship between growing inequality and social cohesion (Aslam et al., 2021). Institutions, as defined, are the formal and informal rules and norms governing social relationships and interactions (North, 1990). As instruments for shaping the distribution of assets, opportunities, and power, institutions can solve, as well as exacerbate, inequality (Acemoglu & Robinson, 2012). If institutions fail in providing equal access to necessary resources such as education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, marginalized communities are limited in various forms of social mobility (Aparicio et al., 2022). In contrast, inclusive institutions that promote equal rights, social protection, and fair opportunities are a means for reducing inequality and reinforcing social cohesion (Burchi et al., 2020; Persson & Tabellini, 2021). Educational systems, labor markets, and welfare policies are essential institutional domains that significantly affect inequality and social cohesion. In order to ensure equity, educational systems must provide quality education for children of varying socioeconomic backgrounds (Chetty et al., 2020). In addition, only through labor market institutions that guarantee fair wages, protect workers' rights, and prohibit discrimination income inequality can be tested (Srivastava, 2019). Furthermore, welfare policies must provide social safety nets, healthcare, and proper care for vulnerable groups (Yuda & Pholpark, 2022). To conclude, institutions serve as pivotal devices for mediating the relationship between inequality and social cohesion. An insufficient understanding of inequalities and its effects on social cohesion will further lead to a lack of uniformity and unrest. With that in mind, comprehending the mechanisms through which institutions shape inequality and social cohesion is essential for the development of successful policies and interventions designed for promoting equitable, cohesive societies. The relationship between inequality and social cohesion has been widely studied in sociology, economics, and other fields. Lamont and Pierson (2019) contends that high levels of inequality can restrict access to resources, weakening social cohesion and such inequalities can lead to divisions and undermine community solidarity (Jetten et al., 2021). Moreever, income inequality is negatively associated with trust and social capital, which in turn hinders cooperation (Lipps & Schraff, 2021). Juvonen et al. (2019) define inequality as the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power, which can manifest as various forms and dimensions, including income inequality, wealth inequality, educational inequality, and occupational inequality. Theoretically, some researchers have proposed Durkheim’s (1893) theory of social integration, which establishes a certain level of cohesion as essential for societal stability (Lukes, 2022), and the functionalist perspectiver believes that some degree of inequality is necessary for encouraging individuals to contribute to society (Stewart, 2014). Empirically, Putnam (2007) and Alesina and La Ferrara (2000) found that higher levels of income inequality correlate with lower levels of interpersonal trust. Additionally, Stopka et al. (2022) revealed positive association between equality of wealth, health and social capital indicators, such as civic participation and community involvement, while Cook (2014) demonstrated that unequal access to education can hinder the development of social networks and trust. Taken together, these studies suggest that high levels of inequality can impede social cohesion by impacting trust and social capital. Access to opportunities plays a critical role in fostering social cohesion within societies (Juvonen et al., 2019). Several studies have demonstrated that disparities in access to opportunities and resources based on socioeconomic status (Elenbaas & Mistry, 2021), gender (van der Lippe & Lippényi, 2020), race, or ethnicity (Kauh et al., 2021) perpetuates inequalities and divides societies. These divisions can lead to feelings of marginalization, exclusion, and resentment, which hinder the development of cohesive communities (Adams et al., 2020). Efforts to promote equal access to opportunities has been at the center of fostering social cohesion. Governments and organizations have implemented various policies and interventions to reduce disparities and ensure equitable access to resources (de Soysa & Vadlamannati). Research showed that countries with more inclusive policies promoting equal access experienced higher levels of social cohesion and decreased social divisions (Plagerson, 2023). Furthermore, Gower et al. (2022) determined that programs such as mentorship schemes and skill-building workshops that are conducted at the community level can be beneficial in enabling individuals who are at a disadvantage and bolstering relationships between members of the same community. In sum, this study outlines the intricate association between diversity, disparity, foundations, and social solidarity. It appears that elevated levels of inequality can counterbalance social cohesion by affecting faith and social capital, while diversity can display both difficulties and openings for social amalgamation. Access to openings and assets, catered for by comprehensive organizations, serves an essential role in fashioning social solidarity. Attempts to reduce disparity and advance proportional access to resources are fundamental for promoting uniform and integrated environments. Future research should probe more intensively into conceptualizing the systems of inequality, analyzing the activities of diversity, and gauging the viability of strategy interventions targeted at intensifying social cohesion. By considering these components, societies can strive towards achieving a more balanced and cohesive future.