2.1 Characteristics of public transportation
Public transportation is provided by government agencies, for-profit companies, non-profit organizations, and individual operators. Service vehicles travel on roads, rails, in the air, and on the sea (Institute of Transportation, 2011). Through the integration of different forms of public transportation, the needs of the public for going out are met. In general, in urban areas, due to relatively high population densities and well-developed industrial and commercial districts, it is mostly mass transit systems that are provided, such as frequent buses and rail transit. This refers to public transportation within a city and to and from adjacent satellite cities and towns with frequent service, large transportation volumes, and fares and routes that are regulated by the government (Chang, 2013). Such transportation services are relatively comprehensive, in comparison with those in suburban and remote areas, in which due to the distance from an urban area it is necessary to provide different forms of transportation services. Paratransit is a better choice in these areas. Paratransit services are relatively flexible, including on-call or variable schedule services. Such transportation methods include DRTS, taxis, and Dial-a-Ride (DAR). The above-mentioned transportation methods are all highly accessible and can be used as public transportation in areas with lower population densities, smaller populations, and lower transportation demand.
Remote area characteristics include low population density and scattered residences. In terms of the accessibility and mobility of residents in these areas, the economically disadvantaged or those unable to use private transportation need to rely on public transportation (Nutley, 2003). However, in remote areas, it is difficult to match the level of public transportation operations in urban areas, such as fixed routes and schedules. Due to low demand, there are limited runs and the standard of service is unable to meet the demands of the public, while operators are at risk of financial loss (Mulley, 2009). In Taiwan, to relieve the financial burden of remote area routes and to maintain public transportation services, the MOTC has established the Regulations for Public Transit Subsidies (amended in 2021). In Article 2 of these regulations, it is stated that subsidies may be provided to operators of public transportation in remote areas, on outlying islands, or along special service routes. In addition, based on the subsidy guidelines of the Highway Public Transportation Diversification Project (2017–2020), subsidies are provided to maintain public transportation routes. In some areas, if existing bus schedules and routes are insufficient, most residents use private vehicles for transportation, while those unable to drive or with limited mobility still need to rely on public transportation. Captive riders are mainly the elderly, persons with disabilities, students, and people from low-income households who have no personal transportation or are unable to use a motor vehicle to seek medical care, education, and employment (Institute of Transportation, 2011).
Based on captive riders, discerning transportation needs in remote areas through a more accurate screening process is the main purpose of this study. The US Department of Transportation (Rural Public Transportation Systems, 2021) has proposed that in rural areas it is mainly the elderly, persons with disabilities, and people in low-income households that use public transportation, which provides accessibility and mobility, such as for going out, working, and shopping. In Japan, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism released a white paper (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2017) in which the demographic structure of rural areas is discussed. There is a larger decline in the proportion of the population aged 64 and under, when compared with the proportion of the population aged 65 and over. The population of elderly people has also declined. However, the phenomenon of aging in rural areas has intensified. Since the main form of transportation for the elderly population to meet their needs for going out is public transportation or walking (Lin, 1994; Lan, 1990; Institute of Transportation, 2020), we urgently need to identify remote areas with real and relevant needs and introduce appropriate services.
2.2 Domestic agency definitions of remote areas
In Taiwan, definitions of remote areas differ among government agencies. However, most are based on population density. Examples are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Summary of Remote Area Definitions in Taiwan
Agency
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Definition
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Ministry of the Interior; National Communications Commission; National Development Council
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Townships (towns, cities) in which the population density is lower than 1/5 the national average or outlying islands that are more than 7.5 kilometers in distance from the seat of the municipal or county (city) government.
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Ministry of Health and Welfare
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Optimizing health care in remote areas project (2019–2023)
Medical care sub-regions in remote areas are divided into three levels: level 1 (no hospitals), level 2 (only regional or general-level hospital), and level 3 (existing moderate-level hospital). In general, remote areas are level 3 sub-medical care regions. Sub-medical care regions and indigenous areas with less than 10 physicians available per 10,000 people, highly remote areas, and outlying islands are level 1 and level 2 remote areas.
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Ministry of Education
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Enforcement Rules of the Early Childhood Education and Care Act – Remote areas refer to townships (towns, cities, districts) in which the population density is less than 2/5 the national average.
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K-12 Education Administration, Ministry of Education 2019 educational priority areas project – Schools on outlying islands or in remote areas with insufficient transportation.
(1) The township, town, or district in which the school is located has no public transportation that reaches it.
(2) The school is located more than 5 kilometers from a public bus stop.
(3) The school is more than 5 kilometers away from the community that lies within its school district and there is no public transportation that reaches it.
(4) There are less than 4 runs per day by public transportation to the area where the school is located.
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Bureau of Energy – Ministry of Economic Affairs
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Measures for subsidizing petroleum facility and transport expenses of remote, indigenous, and offshore areas; working guidelines for subsidies to encourage non-governmental organizations to set up green energy power generation equipment demonstrations in remote areas – Townships, towns, cities, and districts in which the population density is lower than 1/5 the national average.
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Council of Agriculture – Executive Yuan
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Refers to areas that are exempted from feedback fund payment, as reported by each unit.
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Ministry of Transportation and Communications
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2018 key indicators for improving public and green energy transportation – In remote areas (refers to townships, towns, and districts in which the population density is less than 1/5 the national average), the number of households that can access public transportation within 500 meters is divided by the total number of households.
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Source: The MOTC provides subsidies to academia to establish regional transportation development research centers – region number: 3; 2018 final report. The contents of this table have been updated and summarized for this study.
In the Ministry of the Interior (MOI) definition of remote areas, population density is used as the standard. This standard is also cited in the definition of the National Development Council (NDC). In addition, in the Telecommunications Universal Service Regulations of the National Communications Commission (NCC) (2020), the MOI’s definition of remote areas is cited. In some remote areas, the broadband Internet infrastructure is relatively insufficient. Based on Item 12 of Subparagraph 1 of Article 2 of the Telecommunications Universal Service Regulations, surveys are carried out to evaluate whether it is necessary to improve Internet services to reduce the digital divide, supplement education, optimize network coverage, and protect people’s basic right to telecommunications services.
As part of the optimizing health care in remote areas project (Ministry of Health and Welfare (MOHW), 2019), medical care regions are divided, from large to small, into primary, secondary, and sub-regions, and from sub-regions to remote areas based on the type of hospital and the number of physicians available: level 1 (no hospital), level 2 (only regional or general-level hospital), and level 3 (existing moderate-level hospital). Outlying islands and level 1, 2, and 3 areas are considered highly remote areas. In general, remote areas are level 3 sub-regions with fewer than 10 physicians per 10,000 residents and other indigenous areas. Based on this classification method, improvements can be made in physician scheduling, human resources availability, and medical resources allocation. In addition to the above-mentioned classification of medical care regions, the MOHW uses the MOI’s definition of remote areas in its long-term care program.
In addition to formulating a definition of rural areas according to the Enforcement Rules of the Early Childhood Education and Care Act (NCC, 2021), Article 5 of the standards for the classification and identification of remote area schools was formulated in 2021. In articles 6 to 10 of these regulations, indicators are specified for identifying schools in remote areas. Moreover, in the 2019 Educational Priority Areas Project (K-12 Education Administration, 2019), the focus is on schools (only public, elementary, and junior high schools) located in areas where transportation is inconvenient and that have been designated by the local government as extremely remote, very remote, or remote. These schools can apply for a school bus or student transportation subsidy.
In order to resolve energy-related issues in remote areas, the Bureau of Energy of the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA) formulated measures for subsidizing petroleum facility and transport expenses of remote, indigenous, and offshore areas in 2018. These measures call for the provision of subsidies for petroleum facility and relevant operators in remote and indigenous areas. In addition, working guidelines for subsidies to encourage non-governmental organizations to set up green energy power generation equipment demonstrations in remote areas were drafted in 2017. It is hoped that NGOs will participate in renewable energy efforts. As such, subsidies are provided with priority given to demonstrations of distributed green power generation equipment in remote areas that highlight the benefits of autonomous energy supply.
In 2016, the Council of Agriculture (COA) established the Agricultural Development Act. In Article 12, it is mentioned that in designated remote areas and on offshore islands, exemptions are allowed for feedback fund payment for changes in agricultural land use. To the original reference of resource-poor areas or areas of sluggish development, used to define the scope of investment deductions, in the now abolished Statutes for Upgrading Industries of the MOEA, has been added applicable scopes reported by county and city governments.
In the policy plan proposed by the MOTC in 2018, one of the key performance indicators was improved service standards for public and green transportation services. In terms of the measurement standards for the coverage of public transportation services in remote areas, the MOI’s definition of remote areas was adopted.
2.3 Definitions of rural areas in other international countries
In other countries, definitions of remote areas are based on numbers of population clusters, geographic features, economic level, and special transportation areas. There is some similarity in terms of measurement and evaluation with Taiwan’s ministries, as shown below:
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UK: The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (2017) integrates the definitions of urban and rural areas. Initially, the Government Statistical Service (GSS) used a population of 10,000 to distinguish between urban areas and rural communities. Subsequently, based on census data, England was divided into 171,312 output areas (OAs) with an average of 309 people in each. After that, residential density was calculated based on areas of 10,000 (square meters). Upon analysis, it was determined that there are four types of urban areas and six types of rural areas, as shown in Fig. 1. Based on the level of decentralization of residences, urban areas can be divided into major conurbation (suburb), minor conurbation, and city & town. Rural areas are divided into town & fringe, villages, hamlets, & isolated dwellings.
Once these areas were determined by the government, as some were too small to be defined in detail, local governments formulated a classification method, which takes into consideration hub towns, with populations of 10,000 to 30,000. Based on population proportions, six types of urban and rural areas were defined, as shown in Fig. 2. A mainly rural area is one in which at least 80% of the population lives in rural settlements. A largely rural area is one in which 50%-79% of the population lives in rural settlements. An urban with significant rural area is one in which 26%-49% of the population lives in rural settlements. In addition, predominantly urban areas are those in which less than 26% of the population lives in rural settlements. Based on resident population proportions, these can be further divided into urban with major conurbation, urban with minor conurbation, and urban with city and town.
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New Zealand: Since there is no clear international standard for defining urban and rural areas, most countries use population size and density. Statistics New Zealand (Cochrane, W.B., & Maré, D., 2017) differentiates major and minor cities according to the following criteria: level of economic connection, cultural and entertainment interactions, major and professional core services, comprehensive transportation network environment, and workplaces. Areas outside urban areas are classified as rural areas. Rural areas are weighted and analyzed according to working population and map grid method to determine the degree of urban influence, as shown in Fig. 3. They are then divided into three categories based on this influence: rural areas with high, moderate, and low urban influence, in addition to highly rural/remote areas.
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US: In the US, rural areas are defined differently by different agencies. Most are based on population numbers. A few agencies use commuting distances, commuting population, and transportation distances. These are explained in detail below:
(1) US Census Bureau
The US Census Bureau (
2010) divides areas into three categories according to population size: urbanized areas (UAs) with a population of more than 50,000; urban clusters (UCs) with a population between 2,500 and 50,000; and rural areas (areas other than the UAs and UCs described above).
(2) Public Health Service Act 799A
In this act, rural areas include border areas and areas in which the population density is below seven persons per square mile.
US Department of Veterans Affairs, 2021
(3) The US Department of Veterans Affairs uses rural-urban-commuting areas (RUCAs) to define rural areas. This system was jointly developed by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Primary consideration is given to the socioeconomic links to larger urban centers, together with population density and level of urbanization. The results are represented by a set of codes. RUCAs are based on the Census Bureau’s population analysis definition:
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Metropolitan area: According to the Census Bureau definition, a census area is considered urbanized if at least 30% of the population lives in it.
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Rural area: Area not defined as metropolitan or remote.
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Remote area: Sparsely populated area, with less than 10% of the working population commuting to and from a metropolitan area, and with a population that does not exceed 2,500.
RUCA codes range from 1–10. They are used to classify metropolitan (1–3), micropolitan (4–7), small town (8, 9), and rural (10) areas.
(4) US Health Resources & Services Administration (HRSA) (2021)
This agency cites definitions of other US agencies, namely the Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and Federal Office of Rural Health Policy (FORHP).
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OMB: In the classification of counties, an area with a population of over 50,000 is referred to as a major metropolis and with a population of between 10,000 and 50,000 as a minor metropolis. The two combined are referred to as a metropolitan statistical area (MSA). Areas not conforming to MSA criteria are classified as non-urban or rural areas.
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Department of Agricultural Economic Research Service (ERS) (2020): Using the RUCA definitions, each area is assigned a number from 1–10. Rural areas are those coded 4–10 within metropolitan counties. As this indicator cannot be used to investigate service distances and sparsity of population in larger areas, an additional 132 areas with a RUCA code of 2 or 3 are classified as rural areas. These areas have an area of at least 400 square miles with no more than 35 people per square mile.
(5) US Department of Agriculture (2021)
Based on research on rural areas conducted by the ERS, there are three classifications: wilderness areas, rural areas with population of less than 2,500, and urban areas with population between 2,500 and 49,999 that do not belong to a larger labor market. RUCA codes are used as the basis for determination.
(6) Rural Education in America
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2006), after working with the Census Bureau to establish a new classification system, revised school classifications in 2006, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
US Definitions of Rural Schools
Type of area
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Definition
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Fringe
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Based on census data, rural territory that is less than or equal to 5 miles from an urbanized area, as well as rural territory that is less than or equal to 2.5 miles from an urban cluster.
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Distant
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Based on census data, rural territory that is more than 5 miles but less than or equal to 25 miles from an urbanized area, as well as rural territory that is more than 2.5 miles but less than or equal to 10 miles from an urban cluster.
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Remote
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Based on census data, rural territory that is more than 25 miles from an urbanized area and is also more than 10 miles from an urban cluster.
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Source: The National Center for Education Statistics, NCES (2006). This chart was compiled for this study. Note: 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers.
2.4 Definitions of transportation remote areas
During the International Transport Forum (ITF) (2021), it was pointed out that remote areas face numerous transportation challenges (geographic barriers, travel complexity, and effects of climate change, etc.) In terms of geographic characteristics, isolated areas must rely on air and sea connections. Under normal circumstances, the revenues from public transportation operations in remote areas are not enough to cover operating costs. Therefore, there is no motivation for transportation operators to operate in such areas. In addition, in remote areas, the cost of basic land transportation infrastructure maintenance may increase due to geographic location or climate. However, there is usually a lack of funds for maintenance of basic infrastructure in such areas. Therefore, the main challenges for land transportation in remote areas are sustainable operations and maintaining basic infrastructure.
Starkey (2002) noted that there are very broad purposes for transportation in rural areas, such as family life (e.g., shopping for daily essentials), agricultural activities (sale of crops, raising of livestock), and socio-economic activities (education, religion, entertainment and recreation, health care, and employment).
Rural areas need to provide transportation services for people to enter urban areas or densely populated marketplaces and satisfy basic needs, including those related to daily life, education, employment, and civic, religious, and leisure activities. Their accessibility to urban areas or densely populated marketplaces must consider travel time, financial costs, connections (e.g., roads, railways, bridges), and target destinations (e.g., schools, hospitals, markets). Moreover, people can only choose transportation services that are available and affordable.
In many developing countries, when compared with urban areas, rural areas lack adequate transportation services and infrastructure (e.g., roads, railways, bridges, and sidewalks). Therefore, transportation is important for regional socio-economic development. If transportation in rural and other areas improves, people will have better mobility and accessibility, which can indirectly lead to economic development and better quality of life for those living in poverty in rural or suburban areas.
The lack of transportation improvement schemes is one of the important factors affecting the development of rural areas. Starkey (2020) proposes that improvements can be divided into three phases. In the first phase, there should be surveying of the current situation, to gain a deep understanding of transportation usage, supply, and demand, transportation methods, laws and regulations, and traditional culture of a rural area. The second phase involves analyzing existing transportation issues. Flexible improvement strategies should be proposed in the third phase.
The US’ transport authority (Dye Management Group, Inc., 2001) believes that it is not possible to have a narrow definition of rural areas, as for many people the perception of what is rural depends on the distance between where they live and their destination. For example, residents of New York City view the areas outside the metropolitan area as rural and sparsely populated. People in such areas may regard neighboring small cities as urban. Therefore, the definition of rural is relative and vague. As such, this authority defines remote areas as those areas outside the confines of cities, towns, and villages and classifies them into three groups.
A center in which the population is relatively scattered and does not reach 5,000. The economy is mainly based on agriculture and population growth is steady or gradually declining. The local transportation modes are based on “from farm to market.”
The population is relatively scattered with one or more centers with a population of 5,000 or more or the population is 50,000 or more. Economic activities mainly depend on the manufacturing sector or service sector with part of the economy dependent on agriculture. In recent years, the regional population has tended to be stable or continued to grow. Transportation needs are diverse (commuting, intercity mobility, freight, and other purposes).
Urban fringes or rural areas adjacent to a city are considered developing rural areas. In these rural areas, transportation behavior and population growth are affected by the neighboring urban areas, resulting in a substantial increase in the population growth rate and a gradual decline in rural characteristics. Transportation services become diversified, with large demands for commuting and freight transportation. In these areas, some residents hope to preserve local characteristics and some for increased local economic benefits.
Ezike (2020) pointed out that in the US, state transportation departments define “communities of concern” based on those in need, such as low-income groups and ethnic minorities, consistent with the definition proposed by the Federal Highway Administration in 2015. A broader “transportation underserved population” considers public interest in transportation services, including ethnic minorities and low-income groups and pays special attention to groups that face transportation difficulties, such as children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities.
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The US state transportation departments define low income as households with an income below the federal poverty level. Most state agencies rank low-income areas based on statewide income. For example, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation defines a low-income area as an area in which the median household income is less than 60% of the statewide median household income.
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The US state transportation departments define persons of color based on ethnic or racial identity, such as African Americans, Latino Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islander Americans. Similar to the low-income classification, areas where “minority groups” live are based on state profiles. For example, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation defines such areas as having a minority population that exceeds the statewide average by 25.7%.
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Some states believe that those in remote locations, including Native Americans and migrant workers, fulfill this ethnic group criterion, as they live in areas with smaller populations. As such, they should be provided equivalent transportation services. For example, in 2019, 62% of people of color lived on reservations and in indigenous communities in South Dakota. Transportation services in these areas must be ensured.
2.5 Summary
Public transportation services refer to the implementation of different modes of transportation to meet the needs of the public for going out and receiving basic services. In urban areas, transportation development is characterized by high frequency of runs and large volumes, in addition to multiple transportation modes and connections. In remote areas and areas where public transportation services are relatively inadequate, due to low and scattered demand, scheduled routes are likely to lead to financial losses for operators. If fixed schedule and fixed route model of public transportation services needs to be maintained, operating subsidies should be provided. If unable to effectively maintain fixed schedules and fixed routes, flexible paratransit system may be implemented to better meet demand. More people in remote areas use private transportation. Under the situation that restricted and vulnerable passengers can only use public transportation, it is necessary to identify public transportation service options in remote areas and to provide flexible services based on local conditions. In this study, it is expected that relevant parameters will be used for selection and that selection results will be used to review priority areas for public transportation services. Definitions of remote areas in Taiwan and abroad are summarized below:
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In terms of the definitions of remote areas in Taiwan, we refer to those of different agencies. Due to differences in duties, there are variations in the evaluation standards and content for remote areas among agencies. These are mainly related to the work that each agency does, the nature of its research, and its policy objectives, leading to the adoption of different parameters, such as population density, distance to destination, and whether there are vehicles available that can reach the destination. However, agencies mostly make use of the MOI’s parameter for defining remote areas – population density- and do not consider the public transportation services coverage. Only the MOE and the MOTC use destinations (schools, residences) and distances to bus stops as references for the accessibility of public transportation services. Moreover, the Directorate General of Highways of the MOTC uses the number of households served by public transportation in a town/township as a reference for the scope of public transportation services.
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In other countries, total population, population density, distance to city or town, traffic and roads, and transportation distance are often the parameters for determining remote areas or insufficiency of transportation services. New Zealand specifically considers the local culture and economy. In the UK, residential density and urbanization are used to make relevant determinations. It is mainly census data that is used by agencies in the US to define remote areas. Due to the large land area, the population density parameter is not equivalent to that used in Taiwan. But it can be established that the population density parameter is necessary for defining remote areas. In terms of the characteristics of transportation in remote areas, various state transportation agencies in the US focus on groups that face transportation difficulties such as low-income groups, ethnic minorities, children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities. Based on RUCA codes, commuter flow is used to determine non-urban areas. This is then taken a step further to analyze the maximum and minimum commuter traffic volume to determine remote areas. To complete an in-depth survey of public needs, resident travel frequency and characteristics and the level of demand for public transportation are determined. This is then used as the basis for improving the local transportation environment and achieving a fair and barrier-free public transportation environment.
In order to protect the fundamental rights and interests of people in remote areas, Taiwan’s government agencies formulate definitions of remote areas based on different parameters and standards, such as for medical care facilities, schools, and livelihoods, and provide various subsidies and resources. In remote areas, public transportation services are often insufficient. In this study, the definitions of remote areas by relevant ministries in Taiwan and the characteristics of transportation in remote areas in other countries are reviewed. At present, in Taiwan a definition of remote areas with insufficient transportation services that considers both the perspective of transportation services and remote areas is lacking. Various government agencies collectively refer to certain areas in counties and cities across Taiwan as “remote areas.” They do not consider the perspective of transportation services to define “transportation remote areas.” In this study, the focus is on the level of coverage of public transportation services, in addition to the MOI’s population density-based definition of remote areas, economic conditions and income, and elderly population for the selection and analysis of areas in which public transportation services are inefficient, or “transportation remote areas.” It is expected that this can be used as a reference for authorities to determine transportation remote area selection and improvement parameters. In the following section, transportation remote area definition is determined and selection and analysis are conducted.