In this study, a slightly less than a quarter of the participating students indicated the use of ChatGPT highlighting the widespread adoption of this LLM-based tool, previously recognized as the most rapidly expanding consumer application in history 54–56. This versatility of ChatGPT use or the intention to use it as an aid in university assignments was illustrated recently in a large multinational study by Ibrahim et al. 57. This recent multinational study that was conducted among academics and students in Brazil, India, Japan, UK, and USA, regarding their perspectives on ChatGPT, indicated that a majority of students intend to use ChatGPT for assignment support and anticipate that their peers would endorse its usage, implying a potential shift towards ChatGPT use becoming a standard practice among university students 57.
Several previous studies indicated the potential utility of ChatGPT as a prime example among other LLMs in higher education 1,18,26,58–60. Based on the prospects of ChatGPT in higher education, a previous study explored the validity of a survey instrument to assess the factors influencing the adoption of this novel tool among university students in health schools in Jordan 48. The current study confirmed the validity of this survey instrument termed “TAME-ChatGPT” as a valuable tool to elucidate the determinants of ChatGPT use and attitude towards this novel AI-based conversational model.
In this study, the major findings illustrated that the adoption of ChatGPT among university students is influenced by both socio-demographic variables and various TAM constructs as modeled in “TAME-ChatGPT”. Additionally, the study findings revealed that ChatGPT was perceived to have both positive and negative aspects among the participating students reflecting the ongoing debate regarding ChatGPT 1,14. This appears conceivable in light of the current evidence showing that the use of AI-based tools for educational purposes were perceived as a double-edged sword 1,5,14,61. On one hand, these tools can be valuable in delivering timely, efficient, and personalized support to a broad student population promoting equity in education 62–65. On the other hand, valid concerns should be emphasized including the possible generation of inaccurate and biased educational content among other ethical concerns 1,5,66,67.
Therefore, to successfully exploit the potential of ChatGPT in the learning and teaching processes, the current study revealed the following relevant factors: First, one of the most promising features of ChatGPT is its ease of use, which was reflected by general agreement of a majority of the participants students in this study. The ease of ChatGPT use is a notable feature of this tool promoting its widespread accessibility and usability 55. As previously illustrated in various studies, ChatGPT responds to queries in various languages, with notable capabilities facilitating the generation of coherent responses 11,33,68–70. A recent study among university students in Jordan by Ajlouni et al. showed that a majority of participants (73%) agreed on the potential of ChatGPT in facilitating the learning process 71. As a “smart” user-friendly tool, ChatGPT has been shown to be suitable for a wide range of applications, including answering questions, text generation, and aiding in writing of various tasks 33,72,73. Thus, it is conceivable that this particular construct showed a high score among the study sample in various settings.
Based on the findings of the current study, the incorporation of ChatGPT in the learning process among university students can benefit from the ease-of-use feature which was identified as a major factor driving ChatGPT use in the study sample. This finding is in line with results of previous studies which showed that effort expectancy was an important determinant of adoption of novel educational technologies including ChatGPT 59,74,75.
The user-friendly nature of ChatGPT facilitate its immediate accessibility to students of varying backgrounds 33. Through providing an immediate source for clarifying complex concepts, ChatGPT can reduce barriers to learning in higher education 25. The ease-of-use can also offer a personalized learning experience that addresses individual student needs and preferences. Taking into consideration the current study setting in Arab-speaking countries, and based on English language prominence in higher education, ChatGPT can be a valuable tool assisting non-native English speakers to improve the learning process, thereby promoting inclusivity and equity in higher education 67,76,77. Furthermore, the prompt ability of ChatGPT in information retrieval and content generation can allow university students to allocate more time to understand complex educational materials leading to more effective achievement of the intended learning outcomes 1,25,78.
Second, another major determinant of ChatGPT use among the participating students in this study was the perceived usefulness of this novel tool via providing accuracy and speed. Numerous previous studies highlighted that the perceived usefulness of a novel technology is a key factor influencing the intention of users to adopt such a technology 47,79,80.
The study findings highlighted the versatile advantages of ChatGPT in supporting academic tasks among university students. This was reflected by generally high agreement of the participants on the “perceived usefulness” construct items, highlighting that ChatGPT could enhance efficiency in university assignments and duties, aligning with students’ beliefs regarding usefulness of ChatGPT for educational purposes 14,57.
Third, in this study, the positive attitude towards technology as well as the social influence were found as major factors driving the adoption of ChatGPT among the university students. A majority of the sample scored high on the “attitude towards technology/social influence” construct. The responses from participants in this study emphasized the key role of readiness to accept novel technological tools in achieving academic success. This result is conceivable considering that the inclination to embrace novel technological tools, as well as the influence of peers, collectively emerge as key determinants contributing to a successful adoption of new technologies within an educational context 81–83.
Fourth, among the other factors identified as important determinants for ChatGPT adoption among university students in this study were the behavioral/cognitive factors. Certain behavioral and cognitive factors, such as habits, beliefs, and thought processes, are expected to play a significant role in shaping the attitude towards a novel technology such as ChatGPT 84–86. Therefore, it is expected that participants who reported prior experience with tools similar to ChatGPT could be more comfortable and familiar with such a novel technology, rendering those students more likely to adopt ChatGPT for educational purposes. Moreover, the spontaneous use of ChatGPT to retrieve information for academic assignments suggests an intrinsic inclination to rely on the tool, indicating a cognitive readiness to integrate it among university students as indicated by the recent multinational study by Ibrahim et al., which showed that the majority of students (> 90%) intended to use ChatGPT as an aiding tool in their assignments in the coming semester 57.
Fifth, the generally low perceived risks and low anxiety levels among the participating university students in this study suggest a readiness to adopt ChatGPT, in spite of the recognized concerns and known risks associated with this novel AI-based technology 87,88. These concerns that were shown previously included possible unreliability of the generated content, risk of plagiarism, security concerns, risk of violating the academic policies, and privacy issues when using ChatGPT 5,14,18. The finding of low perceived risks in the study sample suggest that the aforementioned concerns were not strongly perceived among students in the sample and indicate the readiness to embrace ChatGPT in the learning process despite the appreciated concerns.
Furthermore, the generally low “anxiety” scores, including the fear of declining the critical thinking skills, over-dependence on technology, and diminished originality in assignments, suggest that the participating students were not anxious about these potential drawbacks. Instead, the study findings suggest that university students could view ChatGPT as a valuable tool in education with low perceived anxiety regarding possible breaches of academic integrity or issues in the development of their skills.
Finally, if ChatGPT among other relevant LLM are to be implemented as a tool for educational purposes, the study findings suggest that the university policies should be tailored in various settings and based on factors such as age and academic performance as reflected by GPA. Different age groups of university students may have varying needs, preferences, and different levels of familiarity with technological advancements. Tailoring policies to accommodate these generational disparities can enhance the overall student experience and acceptance of ChatGPT. Additionally, students with diverse academic achievements may have distinct requirements for utilizing ChatGPT effectively. Customizing policies that address these variations can promote equitable academic achievements and ensure that the tool aligns with students’ academic goals 14.
Limitations of the study requires careful considerations upon attempting to interpret the findings. These limitations included the approach of sampling which was convenience-based. Such an approach is limited by possible selection bias with subsequent lack of generalizability; however, the selection of this sampling approach was based on cost issues, efficiency, and being simple to implement 89. Other limitations included the cross-sectional design, limiting the ability to establish causality or to explore the temporal changes in attitudes and usage patterns of ChatGPT. Additionally, the possible response bias should be considered in light of the possibility of perceived social desirability, in light of the controversy surrounding ChatGPT use in academia.
The successful adoption of ChatGPT among university students is expected to be related to multifaceted factors as intricately inferred through the validated “TAME-ChatGPT” instrument. These factors include the highly perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, positive attitude towards technology in general together with the effect of social influence, and the low anxiety and the low perceived risks. Understanding the dynamic interplay of these factors is important for higher education institutions, educators, policymakers, and other stakeholders if they attempt the integration of AI technologies into educational practices. These TAM-based factors together with demographic factors could collectively influence the students’ attitudes towards ChatGPT, rendering them more likely to view it positively and use it beneficially to achieve the intended learning outcomes in academic settings.