Despite the demonstrated advancements and effectiveness of autonomous vehicles (AVs), societal acceptance and adoption of this technology remain somewhat hesitant. Notably, a gap exists between the technical capabilities of AVs and their widespread acceptance, which is influenced by numerous factors including knowledge, perception, safety concerns, and demographic characteristics. Understanding public perception towards AVs is crucial for laying the groundwork for their successful societal integration. The current study aimed to evaluate the perception of the Spanish population towards AVs and to investigate the extent to which exposure to this technology could shape our perceptions. To accomplish this, we employed a driving simulation approach that offered participants a firsthand experience of AVs in a safe and controlled setting.
In the course of our study, we recruited participants through a targeted media outreach campaign, ensuring a balance in gender representation and a diverse age range. Utilizing a questionnaire and lexical selection task, we explored participants' knowledge and attitudes towards AVs both before and after the immersive simulation experience. This method allowed us to gauge changes in participants' perceptions, considering both cognitive understanding and emotional responses to Avs, enriching our analysis with a multi-dimensional perspective on public acceptance.
4.1. Results Interpretation
Consistent with previous studies, our findings indicate that female participants reported lower levels of knowledge about AVs compared to their male counterparts (Kyriakidis et al., 2015; Schoettle & Sivak, 2014). Interestingly, we also observed that participants who considered themselves skilled drivers exhibited a greater understanding of AVs, which aligns with the classic effect often observed in similar contexts, where individuals have a realistic understanding of their abilities and their self-assessments align closely with their actual performance (Bensalem, 2018). In line with some preceding reports (Hudson et al., 2019), our data demonstrated a significant gender effect on the perception of autonomous driving, indicating that women reported feeling less comfortable during autonomous driving compared to men. Once again, while older individuals tended to exhibit a more negative perception, the age differences did not reach statistical significance. We also observed gender differences regarding perceived safety. Women, regardless of age, expressed a moderate level (5 out of 10) of need to take control of the vehicle at some point during the journey. On the other hand, older men also felt insecure about autonomous driving, reporting similar levels of need for control as women. However, a distinct pattern emerged among young men, who felt calm and secure during the driving experience, registering a notably lower mean of 1.42 out of 10 on the need for control scale.
Taken together, the gender effect remains significant across all three domains: knowledge, perception, and safety. Generally, women tend to have less knowledge about autonomous vehicles, perceive them as more risky and less comfortable compared to men. These findings align with previous studies on attitudes towards autonomous vehicles and willingness to use them (Hand & Lee, 2018; Hőgye-Nagy et al., 2023; Hohenberger et al., 2016; Payre et al., 2014), and could be explained by gender differences in personality traits as sensation-seeking (Payre et al., 2014). Regarding the critical question of the need to take control, people, in general, expressed moderate discomfort and a moderate level of need for control. An exceptional case is observed among young men, who felt more comfortable with autonomous vehicles and have a lower need to take control, suggesting that the perception of safety during autonomous driving may be influenced by the complex interplay between gender and age.
To further investigate the direct experience with autonomous vehicle simulation and its potential to shape participants' attitudes, we included a lexical selection task where participants were asked to select from a standardized list of words those that they associated with "autonomous vehicles". This task aimed to explore if drivers incidentally acquire more knowledge after being exposed to an autonomous vehicle. The results revealed that, on average, younger individuals provided a higher number of words, indicating a greater knowledge of autonomous vehicles compared to older individuals. Furthermore, participants selected more words after engaging with the simulator, suggesting that the experience provided them with additional information about this technology. Overall, our findings suggest that having direct experience with an autonomous vehicle enables individuals to provide more information, and in general, younger individuals possess a greater knowledge of autonomous vehicles compared to older individuals.
After addressing the previous question, the next step was to determine the emotional bias or activation level of the information acquired. To assess this, we analyzed the arousal and valence values associated with the words selected by the participants before and after experiencing the simulated autonomous driving conditions. As expected due to the tight relationship between acceptance and emotional processes (Palomares et al., 2022), our results revealed a significant main effect of arousal, with a significant decrease in scores when comparing the average before and after the simulated autonomous driving experience. This change indicates a reduced intensity of the experience after going through the simulator. The selected words were calmer, positioning participants in a better state to understand and face autonomous vehicles, minimizing potential negative impacts. This shift aligns with the Risk-as-Feelings hypothesis (Loewenstein et al., 2001), which emphasizes how visceral impressions of risk differ from analytical evaluations, leading to a mitigation of initial anxiety and fears stemming from unfamiliarity. This, in turn, gives rise to more positive emotions, which subsequently predict greater acceptance. Regarding valence, although the scores were higher, implying a more positive emotive response, the differences were not statistically significant.
In summary, the results indicate that regardless of gender and age, the experience with autonomous vehicles has an influence on the quantity and quality of information, resulting in greater knowledge, more positive emotions, and a sense of calmness. It is noteworthy that women consistently exhibited lower levels of information, lower levels of perceived safety, negative valence, and higher arousal. Similarly, although not statistically significant, the average scores followed a similar trend for older individuals compared to younger ones.
4.2. Practical Implications
The successful adoption of autonomous vehicles is contingent upon building public trust, increasing exposure, and addressing safety and control concerns. Our research sheds light on practical implications that can effectively promote acceptance and positive perceptions of autonomous vehicles.
Exposure to autonomous vehicles through simulation significantly enhances understanding and elicits a more positive and calm emotional response across diverse genders and age groups. In addition, the experience of simulation leads to reduced arousal levels, indicating a greater sense of calmness and relaxation. Consequently, immersive simulations play a crucial role in alleviating apprehensions and fostering comfort with autonomous vehicle technology. To promote social acceptance and familiarity with autonomous vehicles, it is imperative to offer initiatives such as virtual simulators or safe test drive environments. By dismantling social barriers and bringing this technology closer to the public, we can harness the numerous societal benefits it offers. Public institutions that provide secure environments for test drives or virtual simulators are essential in advancing the social acceptance and widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles.
Drawing on the findings of Charness et al. (2018), our research underscores the significance of increasing familiarity and exposure to autonomous vehicle technology to alleviate concerns and cultivate favorable attitudes toward vehicle automation. Consequently, it is critical to design strategies that bolster public confidence in autonomous vehicles, encompassing measures to augment exposure, raise awareness, and address specific safety and control concerns. Moreover, it is essential to tailor these strategies to cater to different demographic groups. The notable variations in the acceptance of autonomous vehicles based on gender and age underscore the need to account for these differences in the design, marketing, and policy decisions pertaining to autonomous vehicles. By acknowledging gender-specific comfort and trust issues, targeted initiatives can be developed to address the concerns of women explicitly.
4.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions
While our study provides valuable insights into public acceptance and perception of autonomous vehicles, it is essential to acknowledge several limitations. Firstly, we employed a simulation to replicate the autonomous driving experience, which, while immersive, falls short of fully capturing the unpredictable and complex dynamics of real-world driving scenarios. Consequently, participants' responses and attitudes may differ when faced with actual on-road conditions, considering other road users and varying environmental factors. Secondly, our study predominantly focused on gender and age differences, overlooking other potentially significant demographic and socio-economic factors such as income, education, or geographic location. Exploring these factors could offer additional insights into public perception and acceptance of autonomous vehicles. Thirdly, while our sample size was sufficient for our analysis, it reminded relatively small. A larger and more diverse sample would yield a more comprehensive understanding of the population's perspective on autonomous vehicles.
Based on these limitations, there are several promising avenues for future research. One important direction would be to examine the acceptance and perception among individuals who cannot or do not currently drive, including those with motor limitations or individuals who are beyond the legal driving age. Understanding how these populations perceive and accept autonomous vehicles is of great significance, as they stand to benefit greatly from this technology. In fact, the elderly and individuals with disabilities are often assumed to be early adopters due to the increased accessibility offered by autonomous vehicles (Othman, 2021).
Furthermore, it would be valuable to replicate and expand upon our findings in real-world conditions using actual autonomous vehicles. This would help ascertain whether the positive shifts in perception and decrease in arousal observed in the simulator study translate to real-life experiences. By conducting research in real-world settings, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of how autonomous vehicles are perceived and accepted in practical situations.