Cyberbullying victimization and depression among children: Self-perceived social competence as a mediator and optimism as a moderator

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3409170/v1

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Cyberbullying victimization and depression among children: Self-perceived social competence as a mediator and optimism as a moderator

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Cyberbullying victimization is becoming more prevalent and adversely affects mental health. It is essential to explore the relationship between the two variables and the underlying mechanism, especially for children, as the impact of mental health in childhood might last a lifetime. Thus, the current research focused on the relationship and the underlying mechanism. Primary school students (N = 344; M_age = 9.90; 43.90% girls) completed self-report questionnaires regarding cyberbullying victimization, self-perceived social competence, optimism, and depression at school. Gender and grade were controlled as covariates. Depression was positively predicted by cyberbullying victimization. Besides, self-perceived social competence played a partially mediating role. In addition, optimism directly and indirectly moderated the effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression. Specifically, the effects were stronger for children with low levels of optimism. Therefore, efforts to enhance children's self-perceived social competence and optimism may beneficial to reduce children’s depression resulted by cyberbullying victimization.

Cyberbullying victimization

Self-perceived social competence

Optimism

Depression

Children

Internet has become an integral part of ecosystem that influences the development and adaptation of individuals. Many people meet social needs on the Internet (CNNIC, 2021). However, the Internet becomes a double-edged sword due to the negative phenomenon, such as cyberbullying (Wei et al., 2022). Cyberbullying is generally defined as using electronic or digital media to repeatedly inflict harm on others who are unable to defend themselves (Tokunaga, 2010). Characteristics of cyberbullying include a large number of potential audiences, beyond time and space, and the invisibility of perpetrators (Kowalski et al., 2014). Due to the characteristics, cyberbullying victimization is considered to be a greater risk for psychological and behavioral adaptation than traditional bullying victimization (Sticca & Perren, 2013; Tokunaga, 2010). Researchers found that cyberbullying can cause many psychological adaption issues (e.g., anxiety, depression, etc.) (Fisher et.al., 2016). Therefore, this study focuses on the association of cyberbullying victimization and mental health and its underlying mechanism.

Strong threats of social relationships are important factors influencing mental health (Fiorilli, 2019; Nepon et al., 2021). Cyberbullying victimization is one of strong interpersonal stressors due to its repeated and imbalanced character. Cyberbullying victimization can cause individuals to feel rejected and isolated (de Bruyn et al., 2010), and their need to belong is difficult to meet. At the same time, the characteristics of cyberbullying (e.g., repetitiveness and anonymity) may cause individuals to feel unpredictable and uncontrollable to the external world, leading to helplessness and hopelessness, which are important predictors of depression (Henkel et. al., 2002). Empirical studies have showed that cyberbullying victimization is positively predicted many psychological problems (e.g., anxiety, low self-esteem, depression, etc.) (Fisher et al., 2016; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2013; Gao et al., 2021).

Prior studies have concerned traditional bullying and cyberbullying in adolescents and adults (Brewer & Kerslake, 2015; Şahin, 2012; Okumu et al., 2020; Tsitsika et al., 2015; Ttqha et al., 2020), and there is limited research on cyberbullying victimization among children. However, it is worrisome that children are vulnerable to cyberbullying victimization because they have less experience in dealing with negative online events (compared to adolescents and adults). Meanwhile, the adverse effects of early adversity may be last throughout the life span (Green et al., 2010). Depression in childhood may trigger developmental and adjustment problems in adolescence and adulthood (Smith, 2014; van Dulmen & Goossens, 2013). Thus, the purpose of the present study is to explore the association between cyberbullying victimization and depression in children. We hypothesize that depression is predicted by cyberbullying victimization positively in children (H1). In addition, the mechanism underlying cyberbullying victimization and depression is one of the research focus. Understanding the underlying mechanisms can provide a basis for intervening in the harmful effects of cyberbullying victimization. Therefore, the present study aim at further exploring how cyberbullying victimization affects depression and potential individual differences in children.

1.1. Self-perceived social competence as a mediator

Self-perceived social competence is also known as social self-efficacy (Galanaki & Kalantzi-Azizi, 1999), which generally defined as a belief in one's ability to perform competently in a social situation (Vickerstaff et al., 2007). Negative interpersonal experience may impair social self-perception, because the building of social self-perception relies on interpersonal interactions and social feedback (Cole et al., 2014). Especially, children's self-evaluation is developmental and vulnerable to social context and interpersonal experiences (Van der Aar et al., 2018). Experiencing adverse interpersonal events (e.g., cyberbullying) may produce negative feelings of unacceptability and worthlessness (Hua et al., 2019). These negative feelings may produce self-doubt and self-denial, as well as pessimistic beliefs about social competence. In addition, longitudinal study also found that cyber victimization predicted negative self-cognition (Cole et al., 2016). Therefore, cyberbullying victimization may have detrimental influences on self-perceived social competence.

As social aspect of self-efficacy, self-perceived social competence is closely related to individual adaptation (Sakz et al., 2020). When individuals who perceive themselves as having poor self-perceived social competence may feel that they are socially incapable. According to the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), unmet basic psychological needs of individuals (e.g., sense of belonging and competence) may lead to psychological adjustment problems. Social self-perceived social competence is related to belonging. For children in school, belonging is an important psychological need (Over, 2016). Individuals with low self-perceived social competence may feel less competent in maintaining harmonious interpersonal relationships and dealing with interpersonal conflicts. These perceptions may produce helplessness and despair, which may further lead to depression (Abramson et al., 1989). In addition, studies found that negative self-cognition significantly predicted outcomes of maladaptation, such as loneliness (Haugen et al., 2013; Sakz et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2014) and depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Thus, self-perceived social competence may negatively predict depression.

According to the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981), stressors (e.g., cyberbullying victimization) may erode positive cognitive evaluation (e.g., self-perceived social competence) and then leave one especially vulnerable to experiencing symptoms of stress (e.g., depression). Besides, studies showed that children’s social self-perceptions mediated the effect of peer difficulties on internalizing problems (Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003; Spilt et al., 2014). Thus, it might be assumed that cyberbullying victimization predicts depression through the mediating role of self-perceived social competence (H2).

1.2. Personality trait of optimism as a moderator

According to diathesis-stress theory of depression, the interaction between the environment and the individual jointly determines mental health (Monroe & Simons, 1991). Positive personality traits (e.g., resilience, growth mindset, mental capital) are protective factors against stressful environments and can reduce the occurrence of psychological problems (Chun et al., 2021; Niu et al., 2020; Tucker et al., 2013). Optimism as a positive personality trait is a protective factor for an individual's mental health. Thus, it is important to explore optimism role in the relationship between cyberbullying and depression.

Optimism is a generalized tendency toward positive expectations of the future and life engagement (Scheier & Carver, 1984; Tucker et al., 2013). As a positive personality trait, optimism contributes to personal adaptation and individual life satisfaction (Mäkikangas et al., 2004; Mens et al., 2018). Optimists are biased toward positive information and can look at the positive aspects in the face of stress (Segerstrom, 2001). Positive information can promote enhanced positive emotions and hope. Besides, optimists tend to employ positive cognitive strategies (e.g., cognitive reappraisal) and coping strategies (e.g., problem-solving coping strategies) to mitigate the effects of adversity on negative psychological outcomes (Carver et al., 2010; Nurmi et al., 1996; Puskar et al., 1999).When faced with cyberbullying victimization, optimists accept their situation realistically and solve problems in an adaptive way. Furthermore, optimists also have greater self-confidence and perseverance in the face of cyberbullying victimization (Carver et al., 2009). That is, optimism can be beneficial in reducing vulnerability to depression by increasing positive thoughts, adaptive coping, and perseverance. In addition, cross-sectional and longitudinal studies found that optimism moderated the relation between various stress (e.g., perceived psychological stress, job stress and coronavirus stress ) and depression (Banerjee, 2012; Romswinkel et al., 2018; Arslan & Yıldırım, 2021).Thus, it might assume that optimism moderates the direct effect and indirect effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression. Compared with high optimism, cyberbullying victimization could directly predict depression and indirectly predict depression through self-perceived social competence in low optimism (H3).

In summary, it makes sense to incorporate self-perceived social competence and optimism in the same conceptual framework. According to the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981) and the diathesis-stress theory, the undesirable impacts of stressors (e.g., cyberbullying victimization) can be mediated by cognitive factors (e.g., self-perceived social competence) and moderated by personality traits (e.g., optimism). Thus, this study focuses on the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression, and the mediating role of self-perceived social competence and the moderating role of optimism.

2.1. Participants and procedure

Participants were from 344 children from grade 3 to 6 (M_age = 9.90, SD = 1.20; 43.90% girls) in an elementary school.There were 72 participants in the third grade, 92 participants in the fourth grade, 89 participants in the fifth grade, and 91 participants in the sixth grade. This study was conducted with the prior consent of the school and parents. Pre-trained graduate students in psychology served as experimenters and conducted questionnaire collection at the school. Participants were informed of the confidentiality of the data. We also explained informed consent and the right to withdraw at any time to children. Children were asked to respond independently and authentically.Children complete a set of questionnaires in the classroom.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Cyberbullying victimization

The scale was adapted from the general cyberbullying measures by Hinduja and Patchin (2008). It is divided into two dimensions of 8 items in total, namely cyberbullying and cyberbullying victimization. The present study adopted 4 items of the dimension of cyberbullying victimization (e.g., “Have you ever been bullied by others online or through text messages?”). The scale adopts a four-point Likert scale (“1” = “never”, “4” = “often”). Scores for cyberbullying victimization were averaged across items. Higher scores indicate greater cyberbullying victimization. The questionnaire’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.85 in the current study.

2.2.2. Self-perceived social competence

We applied the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1982). There are 6 items in the subscale of self-perceived social competence. The participants were presented with two descriptive sentences simultaneously on right and left sides to offset the tendency of socially desirable responses.Examples of items, “Some children find it difficult to make friends.” vs. “Other children find it easy to make friends.” First, participants choose which side of the description they fit better. Second, they report the degree of truth of the side of description for them. This scale adopts a four-point Likert scale. The higher the score, the higher the self-perceived social competence. Items were averaged to form a subscale score. The questionnaire’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.63 in the current study.

2.2.3. Optimism

We adopted the Chinese version (Liu & Cheng, 2007) of the Life Orientation Test-Revised (Scheier et al., 1994). Previous studies used this scale as a measure of dispositional optimism and has good reliability and validity (Krok, 2015; Niu et al., 2018). The Chinese version has 12 items and adopts a five-point Likert scale, as “1” indicating strongly disagree and “5” indicating strongly agree. It contains five positive phrased items (e.g., I always thought I was going to be lucky), five negative phrased items (e.g., I think things rarely follow my ideas), and two filler items (e.g., Relaxation is easy for me). Item responses were averaged to form the optimism score. Higher scores indicate greater optimism. The questionnaire’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.81 in the current study.

2.2.4. Depression

Many studies adopted the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977). We applied the Chinese version (Wang et al., 1999) of it. This scale has high reliability and validity in Chinese participants (Liu et al., 2017). It contains 20 items and uses a four-point Likert scale (“1” = never” to “4” = “always”). Item responses were averaged to form the depression score. Higher scores indicate higher levels of depression. The questionnaire’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91 in the current study.

2.3. Statistical analysis

We adopted SPSS 20.0 to analyzed data collected in the present study. First, all the variables in this study were analyzed by Pearson’s correlation analyses to examine the potential relationships among variables, including cyberbullying victimization, self-perceived social competence, optimism, and depression. Second, to investigate the current situation of cybervictimization and depression of Chinese children, we used MANOVA to explore children’s gender and grade differences in all variables. The PROCESS macro for SPSS (Model 15) (Hayes, 2013) was applied to analyze the proposed moderated mediation model.

3.1 Descriptive statistics and correlations

First, 31.1% (n = 107) of the children reported experiencing cyberbullying victimization at least once, including 70 boys (36.3%) and 37 girls (24.5%); 20 participants of grade 3 (27.8%), 23 participants of grade 4 (25.0%), 24 participants of grade 5 (27.0%), and 40 participants of grade 6 (44.0%). Second, the gender and grade differences were examined by MANOVA of conducting a 2 (Gender: male and female) × 4 (Grade: 3, 4, 5, and 6). Results showed that main effect of grade [F _{(3, 336)} = 4.70, p = 0.003, ƞ_p² = 0.04] on cyberbullying victimization was significant. Then, post hoc tests suggested that the sixth graders experienced greater cyberbullying victimization than third graders [p = 0.006], fourth graders [p = 0.001] and fifth graders [p = 0.019]. Besides, analysis also showed a significant interaction effect of gender and grade among children on depression [F _{(3, 336)} = 3.06, p = 0.028, ƞ_p² = 0.03]. Then, simple effect analysis indicated that boys in lower grade reported more serious depression than girls, and the opposite is true for upper grade.

The results of descriptive statistics and correlation matrix of all variables were presented in Table 1. Cyberbullying victimization was positively related to depression. Cyberbullying victimization was negatively related to self-perceived social competence and optimism. Self-perceived social competence was positively related to optimism and negatively related to depression. Besides, optimism was negatively related to depression.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables.
Variables	M	SD	1	2	3
1. Cyberbullying victimization	1.29	0.60
2. Self-perceived social competence	2.88	0.57	–0.12^*
3. Optimism	3.54	0.84	–0.21^***	0.53^***
4. Depressive symptoms	1.64	0.58	0.33^***	–0.47^***	–0.61^***
Note. N = 344. ^* p༜0.05. ^*** p༜0.001.

3.2 Testing for the moderated mediation model

Table 2

Regressions testing self-perceived social competence as a mediator and optimism as a moderator in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
Regression Models	β	SE	t value	LLCI	ULCI	R²	F value
Outcome: SPSC						0.01	1.55
Predictors: Gender	0.01	0.06	0.16	– 0.112	0.132
grade	– 0.004	0.03	– 0.15	– 0.060	0.052
CV	– 0.11	0.05	– 2.04^*	– 0.209	– 0.004
Outcome: Depressive symptoms						0.48	43.44^***
Predictors: Gender	0.04	0.05	0.79	– 0.055	0.129
grade	– 0.04	0.02	– 1.99^*	– 0.086	– 0.001
CV	0.18	0.04	4.09^***	0.094	0.267
SPSC	– 0.19	0.05	– 3.91^***	– 0.283	– 0.094
Optimism	– 0.31	0.03	– 9.38^***	– 0.377	– 0.246
CV × Optimism	– 0.09	0.05	– 1.97^་	– 0.181	0.000
SPSC × Optimism	0.12	0.04	2.83^**	0.038	0.208
Conditional indirect effect	Optimism values	Effect	Boot SE	Boot LLCI	Boot ULCI
	– 1(M – 1 SD)	0.03	0.02	0.002	0.067
	0 (M)	0.02	0.01	0.002	0.044
	1(M + 1 SD)	0.01	0.01	– 0.003	0.029
Note. N = 344. Gender was dummy coded (male = 1; female = 0). CV = Cyberbullying victimization; SPSC = Self-perceived social competence; LL = lower limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit.

^་ p = 0.05. ^* p༜0.05. ^** p༜0.01. ^*** p༜0.001.

As presented in Table 2, the regression models included gender and grade as covariates. Cyberbullying victimization negatively predicted self-perceived social competence (β = – 0.11, p = 0.042) and positively predicted depression (β = 0.18, p < 0.001). Depression was negatively predicted by self-perceived social competence (β = – 0.19, p < 0.001). These results suggested cyberbullying victimization positively predicted depression in children, supporting H1. Besides, self-perceived social competence partially mediated the effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression, supporting H2.

Moreover, depression was marginal significantly predicted by the interaction of cyberbullying victimization and optimism (β = 0.09, p = 0.050).This finding showed that optimism moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression. Depression was significantly predicted by the interaction of self-perceived social competence and optimism (β = 0.12, p = 0.005). This finding showed that optimism moderated the relationship between self-perceived social competence and depression. Then, we further adopted simple slope analysis. As presented in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, results showed that children with optimism at one SD below the mean had a significant effect of cyberbullying victimization (β_simple = 0.26, p < 0.001) and self-perceived social competence (β_simple = – 0.29, p < 0.001) on depression. However, the effect of cyberbullying victimization (β_simple = 0.10, p = 0.134) and self-perceived social competence (β_simple = – 0.09, p = 0.181) was non-significant when the optimism values moderated to one SD above the mean.

The conditional indirect effects analysis was examined at three values of optimism,including the mean and one standard deviation above and below the mean. The results showed that the indirect effects were significant and positive only at M – 1SD and M values of optimism. However, the indirect effect was not significant at M + 1SD values of optimism. Thus, the results supported H3.

The current study focused on exploring the effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression and the process underlying in children by constructing a moderated mediation model. Results indicated that self-perceived social competence was a mediator and optimism was a moderator in the direct and indirect effects. To be specific, compared with high optimism, cyberbullying victimization could directly predict depression in low optimism. Cyberbullying victimization also could indirectly predict depression through self-perceived social competence in low optimism.

Our study found that cyberbullying victimization positively predicted depression in children.The result is generally consistent with previous research on the relationship between negative life events and depression (Okumu et al., 2020; Ttqha et al., 2020). This finding extends previous research by focusing on children. Similar to the findings in adults and adolescents, experiencing cyberbullying victimization may also trigger depression in children.

4.1. The mediating role of self-perceived social competence

We found that self-perceived social competence played a partially mediator role in the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression in children. This finding coincide with the viewpoints of the stress process model (Pearlin et al., 1981). Besides, the result generally accord with previous research examining the relationships of negative events, cognition, and mental health (Sakz et al., 2020; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). The finding expand and develop previous research by focusing on children and negative online events.

The finding of mediating effect indicated that cyberbullying victimization influences children's belief in social competence and in turn develops into internalizing symptoms (i.e., depression). Children have an immature function of evaluation. Their appraisal of social competence is in the development stage and easily affected by peer victimization (Morrow et al., 2019). Children, mocked or rumored by peers repeatedly, will doubt their social ability (Lee et al., 2010). Besides, self-perceived social competence is closely associated with individual’s need to belong and competence, which are essential to children. Children with poor social self-competence may feeling unaccepted by others and worthless in the social domain, and may further develop to depression. Therefore, the experience of cyberbullying victimization reduces children’s self-perceived social competence. Poor self-perceived social competence makes individuals vulnerable to becoming depressed. Given the above mentioned, interventions should pay attention to enhance levels self-perceived social competence to minimize the detrimental influences of experiencing cyberbullying on children.

4.2. The moderating role of personality trait of optimism

Consistent with hypotheses, the results showed that optimism directly and indirectly moderated the effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression. Specifically, children with lower optimism were more prone to experience depression resulting from cyberbullying victimization. Besides, at high levels of optimism, self-perceived social competence do not play a mediating role. However, at low levels of optimism, cyberbullying victimization can influence depression through the mediating role of self-perceived social competence. These results are in accord with the diathesis-stress theory and studies about optimism (Niu et al., 2018; Tucker et al., 2013). Compared with previous research, this research further extended the protective effect of optimism by focusing on the children and interpersonal stressors in the virtual environment (i.e., cyberbullying victimization).

We found that optimism can moderate the effect of cyberbullying victimization on depression. It may be because optimists' hope for the future mitigates the predictive effects of helplessness and hopelessness resulting from cyberbullying victimization on depression (Abramson et al., 1989). Moreover, optimism could buffer the effect of low self-perceived social competence resulting from cyberbullying victimization on depression. Namely, optimists respond positively to cyberbullying and therefore have a lower risk of depression.

There are two reasons to explain moderating role of optimism on indirect pathway. First, optimists always pay attention to future-oriented expectations in a positive attitude (Carver & Scheier, 2005; Scheier & Carver, 1984). Positive expectations lead children to have the confidence to boost low social competence. According to expectancy-value models of motivation, the value of outcomes (e.g., self-perceived social competence is important) and positive expectations (e.g., self-perceived social competence can be enhance) can help individuals increase their motivation and strive to overcome difficulties (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Carver & Scheier, 2005). Second, optimists are more likely to employ positive coping strategies to solve problems (Nes & Segerstrom, 2006; Tucker et al., 2013). Optimists may strive to learn social skills and seek social support to improve their social competence self-perception to further prevent depression. But fewer optimists tend to adopt avoidance coping strategies, which may exacerbate emotional symptoms. Thus, formulating approaches to enhance children's optimism can be beneficial in reducing the adverse effect (e.g., depression) resulting from cyberbullying victimization.

4.3 Implications

The present research is the first to explore the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression in children and the underlying mechanisms (self-perceived social competence as a mediator and optimism as a moderator). The findings extended previous research by conducting among children and focus on bullying victimization in virtual environment. The results also have practical value to intervention programs for cyberbullied children. In addition, personality is developmental and shapeable during childhood (Slobodskaya, 2021). Studies indicated that self-perceived social competence and optimism can be trained to improve (Chen et al., 2016; Littman-Ovadia & Nir, 2014; Sergeant & Mongrain, 2014; Gillham et al., 2007; Roberts et al., 2018). To reduce depression caused by cyberbullying, children (especially those who are cyberbyllied) should be provided with methods to effectively raise their level of self-perceived social competence and optimism. Consequently, the development of positive cognition on social competence and optimism could effectively prevent the detrimental impact of cyberbullying victimization. With centering on the important role of self-perceived social competence and optimism, the current study is of theoretical value to further explore the harmful influence of cyberbullying victimization on children. At the same time, it is of great practical significance for the prevention and intervention programs to alleviate depression in children.

4.4. Limitations and future directions

This study has some limitations. First, our study focused on investigating cyberbullying victimization, without considering traditional bullying. Future research could explore whether there are differences in the underlying mechanisms between the two types of bullying. Besides, the findings of partial mediating role of self-perceived social competence imply that some other factors also play mediating roles. Additional mediators should be explored to fully reveal the potential mechanisms of the detrimental effects of cyberbullying victimization. Finally, we utilized a cross-sectional approach, so that causal inferences need to be made with caution. This study used a single source and a limited number of participants. Future research could use longitudinal studies with large sample of rich sources to better explore whether or how childhood experiences of cyberbullying affect later mental health levels.

Overall, the current study found that depression was positively predicted by cyberbullying victimization. Self-perceived social competence played partial mediating role in the relationship between children’s cyberbullying victimization and depression. The direct effect and indirect effect were moderated by optimism. Specifically, in children with low optimism levels, cyberbullying victimization not only directly predicted depression but also indirectly predicted depression through the mediating role of self-perceived social competence, whereas in children with high optimism it was not found.

Author contributions：

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Kuai Song, Geng-Feng Niu, Cui-Ying Fan, and Zong-Kui Zhou. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Kuai Song and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and

approved the final manuscript.

Ethics statement：

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest：

The authors have declared that they have no competing or potential conflicts of interest.

Funding:

This research was funded by the Research Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University in China（ grant number 2021-04-003-BZPK01）； Research Grants for Young Scholars of Sunglory Education Institute（ grant number SEI-QXZ-2022-016）.

Institutional Review Board Statement:

The study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of Central China Normal University. Compliance with Ethical Standards（CCNU-IRB-201611025b）.

Informed Consent Statement:

Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by all participants.

Data Availability Statement:

Data available on request from the authors.

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Cyberbullying victimization and depression among children: Self-perceived social competence as a mediator and optimism as a moderator

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

1.1. Self-perceived social competence as a mediator

1.2. Personality trait of optimism as a moderator

2. Method

2.1. Participants and procedure

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Cyberbullying victimization

2.2.2. Self-perceived social competence

2.2.3. Optimism

2.2.4. Depression

2.3. Statistical analysis

3. Results

3.1 Descriptive statistics and correlations

3.2 Testing for the moderated mediation model

4. Discussion

4.1. The mediating role of self-perceived social competence

4.2. The moderating role of personality trait of optimism

4.3 Implications

4.4. Limitations and future directions

5. Conclusion

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