Our analysis suggests that code-switching occurs most frequently at the complicating action, evaluation, and resolution sections of the Labovian narrative structure. These sections represent parts of the narrative during and immediately following the description of details that are sensitive and/or emotionally distressing. In what follows, we show that code-switching in our data acts as: (1) a distancing strategy when discussing troubling past experiences; (2) an authenticating strategy when recalling interactions carried out in English-speaking settings; and (3) a foregrounding strategy to highlighting the main points in the story. We elaborate on these functions below.
Code-switching as a distancing strategy
Example 1 represents an excerpt that illustrates the first function of code-switching observed in our data, namely, its use as a distancing strategy when narrators talk about difficult, sensitive, or emotionally-laden experiences.
Example 1
Right, and I felt that my whole body wasn’t quite right, and I had seen all kinds of doctors already by that point. That is, before when I wasn’t so >hhuh< well, I said, if I couldn’t see clearly, I would go see an ophthalmologist. If I felt that my body wasn’t quite – quite OK, I would go see a gynaecologist. And of course, the gynaecologist thought that >hhuh < maybe the issues I was experiencing could be attributed to menopause (0.5) Right. And he did prescribe some hormones. Right. And I did follow this treatment. But it got to the point where, that is I felt that I still wasn’t quite alright. Because one of my good friends is a doctor, and >they said to my husband<, bring her to see, eh, a psychiatrist, right? See what the doctor says, right. And so, really- eh, this time I did need medication. That is, I found that in fact, I am prone to having depression. And so perhaps the first time, eh, that therapy, when they talk with you, you can learn to use your own strategies to manage your problems and overcome the hard times. That is, even though it was also depression in 2009, I could use, eh- eh that kind of therapy session to solve my problems. But this time, eh, that wasn’t enough. That is, the doctor, because one day, things got so bad, that I actually felt like I was in danger.
Because I felt that I- I didn’t want to stay at home alone. Fortunately, eh, I think after getting to know me in these past couple of training sessions, everyone here knows that I really enjoy sharing my thoughts. And so I think, I was able to say out loud (0.3) eh, to my daughter, and my- my- my husband, I said, I feel that it would be dangerous for me to stay at home. I am scared that I won’t be able to control myself. And so I went straight to the hospital.
In this excerpt, code-switching primarily occurs when the narrator discloses sensitive information about her diagnosis and the course of treatment. This information includes names of diagnostic labels (“depression”), professional mental health services (“therapy”), and medications (“prescribe”, “hormones”, “medication”). While previous literature on code-switching in Hong Kong suggests that this linguistic behavior commonly functions to fill a lexical gap (i.e., account for an absence of linguistic equivalents in one’s native language)20, or to accommodate linguistic needs of diverse interlocutors within a multilingual setting,58 these are not the functions of code-switching observed here. First, there exist Cantonese equivalents for the English terms listed above. Second, all individuals (storytellers and workshop trainers) present at the training sessions were native Cantonese speakers, thus excluding the possibility that this narrator could have been trying to cater to the linguistic needs of different group members.
Instead, the prosodic features of this excerpt suggest that code-switching plays an emotional distancing function. Specifically, this extract includes repeated and rapid inbreaths, emphasis on certain key words (e.g. when she notes that she felt she could not control herself and had to admit herself to the hospital), sped-up speech, the use of hesitation markers (“eh”) and the use of filler words (“right”) which coincide with disclosures of sensitive details about her illness experience. The speaker’s discomfort also becomes evident when she temporarily breaks away from the recounting of her narrative to communicate directly with the audience (“Fortunately, eh, I think after getting to know me in these past couple of training sessions, everyone here knows that I really enjoy sharing my thoughts”, lines 15-17)
Another noteworthy feature of this excerpt is the use of reported direct speech (i.e., “…and >they said to my husband<, bring her to see, eh, a psychiatrist, right? See what the doctor says, right.”, lines 8-9). This discursive strategy is used to authenticate events within a narrative as it allows listeners to experience the narrative in the ‘shoes’ of the narrator.59, 60 The authenticating function of reported direct speech is particularly significant within recovery storytelling, of which a key objective is to help listeners take the perspective of the narrator.
With reference to the Labovian narrative structure, this majority of this excerpt comes from the complicating action portion of this storyteller’s narrative, in which the narrator describes a situation that requires a resolution.54 Of note, the complicating action usually also represents the highest point of the narrative arc, where emotions are most elevated and where the ‘tellability’ of the story is exhibited.54 This excerpt then ends with a brief resolution section where the narrator reveals the way in which the troubling situation is addressed (i.e., admitting herself to hospital). Strikingly, instances of code-switching are most densely clustered in the beginning and middle sections of the narrative (corresponding to the complicating action), and become more infrequent as the narrator arrives at the story’s resolution at the end.
Taken together, it is likely that code-switches in this excerpt function as an avenue of communicating emotional discomfort. This idea has been documented in psychological literature on emotional processing and expression amongst bilingual individuals, which provides evidence that bilinguals switch to using a less dominant language (in this case, English) in order to emotionally distance themselves from distressing events.61, 62
Code-switching as an authenticating strategy
We now turn our attention to the second function of code-switching observed in our data, which is to authenticate interactions carried out in an English-speaking setting. The following excerpt is taken from a narrative recounted by a storyteller who had previously worked in a multinational corporation where English was the medium of communication.
Example 2
So, so, so I had -- for that job at the time, I also had to, eh, manage a small team of ten people. But then (1.0) my boss was always scolding me. At night, eh, he would call me even when it was at 8 or 9pm and ask me about my work progress. Then one night, I had >hhuh< I had something of an emotional outburst in front of him, it was eight pm (2.0) Because >hhuh< quite frankly, my medication, it has- it has no, that is, I won’t be very precise about which kind, but my type of medication, it has- >hhuh< it has its limitations. Its effects last for 12 hours. At around eight – eight pm at night, they assume that I, eh, when the period of effectiveness passes, I – I might, not- not necessarily, but I might experience a bit of a >hhuh< eh, that is, a transition period where my emotions are not as stable. And so, >hhuh< so under those circumstances, because I felt aggravated and I scolded I- I spoke back to my boss and scolded him. And so, my– my boss ordered me to see his boss, and the three of us sat together for a chat. So, I was really >hhuh< that time I was really honest with them and I said, (.)I am trying a new form of medication. I said, I- >hhuh< I- I- I am new to the treatment. I feel that I- >hhuh< everyone needs to give me some time, some space (0.3) to- to adjust (.) to this new condition. I- I hope you can give me the chance to >hhuh< to >hhuh< eh, to adapt to- >to- to- to< (0.8) to the new situation. I also -- >hhuh< I feel that I am doing a pretty good job. I also told the HR. (0.5) But then (1.0) eh that job (0.5) what happened was that they asked two admin staff (0.5) to bring over those red/white/blue plastic bags. (0.5) ~And while~ I was in the bathroom >hhuh< they stuffed all my personal belongings into the bags (0.5) and then (0.5) >hhuh< when I came out from the bathroom (0.5) they passed me a letter. You have been dismissed. That’s right, you? Mr. Chan, do you need to call a taxi? ~I’ll help you call one.~ >hhuh< That is, you know ? (0.5) eh I thi::nk ? that anyone (1.0) > under these circumstances < would have collapsed (1.0) They would have > that is, that is, that is < I think ? >hhuh< just think about my path in life so far. Since I was young, I have been an elite student and acquired so many professional qualifications. To be shooed out in this way ? (1.0) actually I- I (1.0) it should have been unbearable for me. (0.8) But I felt that I couldn’t lose faith. (0.8) That’s right. That is (0.5) when a company treats you in this way (0.5) but when you know that you are moving in the right direction (2.0) I think (.) no, there isn’t one way, there isn’t a way to accomplish something overnight. (1.0) You have to keep trying, and keep finding a right fit. (1.0) And so I didn’t, I didn’t give up. (0.5) After two months, I found my current job.
In this example, code-switching occurs when the narrator references reported direct speech (e.g., “I said, I >hhuh< I, I -- I am new to the treatment”, line 13-14). The function of code-switching in these junctions of the narrative can be inferred from information offered by the narrator in other sections of the narrative – specifically, that the medium of communication in his company was English. Within this context, it is plausible that code-switching here functions to help the narrator more efficiently access memories of conversations that were carried out in English. Existing research findings in the field of psycholinguistics are in support of this idea, demonstrating that individuals who speak more than one language recall memories more clearly when the language used at memory retrieval matches the one used at the memory encoding stage.63
Prior scholarly work corroborates these ideas, highlighting factors that influence the perceived authenticity of a remembered event. As Ochs and Capps (1997) discuss, “…acts of remembering are attempts to seize authority with respect to a topic of concern. For the presupposed truths to become recognized as such, however, these acts require validation by others.” 64 In other words, the very act of claiming that one remembers something declares certainty in the occurrence of a past event. Despite this, this declaration still requires additional evidence to demonstrate to others that this reality is not merely subjectively perceived. In this excerpt, switching to English when recounting an interaction that was originally carried out in English serves this very purpose, providing additional contextual details about the remembered situation that bolster the perceived authenticity of the narrator’s experiences.64
This excerpt represents the complicating action section of this narrator’s story where the narrator describes a troubling past experience in detail, followed by evaluation and resolution sections, where the narrator shares his views about the event and how the challenge described in the complicating action section was resolved. Thus, in a similar way to Example 1, frequent instances of code-switching are observed at a segment of the narrative where emotions are heightened. Of note, these moments of heightened emotion also represent times when the narrator’s ‘face’ (i.e., public image) is most at stake.65
Code-switching to highlight key messages of the story
The final function of code-switching observed within our data is that of underscoring main ideas in the narrative. Example 3 below represents an extract from the story of the same narrative as Example 2, and describes the narrator’s painful memory of being dismissed from a company he worked at due to his mental health condition:
Example 3
.hhh That is, you know ? (0.5) eh I think ? : : that anyone (1.0) > under these circumstances < would have collapsed (1.0) They would have > that is, that is, that is < I think ? >hhuh< just think about my path in life so far. Since I was young, I have been an elite student and acquired so many professional qualifications. To be shooed out in this way ? (1.0) actually I, I (1.0) it should have been unbearable for me. (0.8) But I felt that I couldn’t lose faith. (0.8) That’s right. That is (0.5) when a company treats you in this way -- (0.5) but when you know that you are moving in the right direction (2.0) – I think (.) no, there isn’t one way, there isn’t a way to accomplish something overnight. (1.0) You have to keep trying, and keep finding a right fit. (1.0) And so I didn’t, I didn’t give up. (0.5) After two months, I found my current job.
The code-switching pattern in Example 3 differs noticeably from previous examples. Namely, the narrator incorporates full English phrases, rather than single words, into his primarily Cantonese speech. Notably, these English phrases do not appear to fill lexical gaps as suggested by previous code-switching research.20 Instead, an examination of the Labovian narrative structure reveals insights into the potential function of code-switching in this excerpt.
Specifically, Example 3 represents the evaluation and resolution sections of the story. These sections involve the narrator distancing himself from the harrowing event described in the complicating action section and conveying overall lessons learned before concluding the story. Notably, this narrative arc is reminiscent of the “hero’s journey” storyline popularized by Joseph Campbell.66 This storyline consists of three stages: (1) the departure, where the protagonist recognizes value of facing their fears, (2) the initiation, where the protagonist leaves the ‘ordinary world’ (i.e., a familiar environment) and enters uncharted territory; and (3) the return, where the protagonist comes back to the ‘ordinary world’ equipped with renewed determination and resources to support themselves and others. This final stage of the “hero’s journey” storyline also marks a time when the protagonist may voice out an advocacy message intended to encourage and empower other people going through similar forms of hardship. The uplifting nature of this narrative arc makes the “hero’s journey” storyline a common framework for constructing mental health recovery narratives in advocacy contexts, as it allows narrators to make meaning of their hardship while underlining their resilience to potential listeners.9, 67
Existing research on the use of the “hero’s journey” storyline sheds light on the function of code-switching in this example. Specifically, the narrator switches to using full English phrases when arriving at the evaluation segment of the story. This segment of the Labovian narrative structure corresponds to the return stage of the “hero’s journey” storyline, where the protagonist returns to the real world ready to share key lessons learned and advocate for others who have faced similar challenges. By switching to English when recounting his newfound insights, this narrator emphasizes the value of these realizations. It is noteworthy that the phrases used in this excerpt such as “[don’t] lose faith” (lines 5-6), “[keep] moving in the right direction” (line 7) and “you have to keep trying” (lines 8-9) are popular slogans of encouragement commonly used in English discourses to evoke sentiments of inspiration and empowerment.20 The arousal of such sentiments further enhances the narrative’s tellability by highlighting the positive outcomes resulting from the narrator’s struggles.68
The final sentence in this excerpt, “After two months, I found my current job” (lines 9-10) corresponds to the resolution of the narrative and serves to validate the key lessons shared by the narrator. By revealing the positive outcome that resulted from his persistence amidst adverse circumstances, which he advocates in the English slogans of encouragement, the narrator positions himself as a credible and trustworthy source of information.