Characteristics of study population
A data of 2,687 reproductive age group women were included in the final analysis. Among these study participants, more than one third of them (39.62%) were from Oromia region, more than two third (68.87%) of them were not currently working and 1,107 (41.20%) are Muslim. More than third quarters (78.5%) of the respondents were not watching television at all. Around 11.1% of the respondents were pregnant. More than two third of the women had decision making autonomy (69.00%) and have attitudes towards wife beating (68.63). Regarding husband /partner of respondents, 44.80% of them did not have any formal education and 30.23% of them drunk alcohol.
Table 1
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in Ethiopia from January 18 to June 27, 2016 (N = 2,687)
Variables | Weighted frequency | Percent% |
Age | | |
15–19 | 137 | 5.02 |
20–24 | 453 | 16.56 |
25–29 | 686 | 25.09 |
30–34 | 577 | 21.11 |
35–39 | 464 | 16.97 |
40–44 | 283 | 10.36 |
45–49 | 134 | 4.88 |
Residence | | |
Urban | 387 | 14.15 |
Rural | 2,347 | 85.85 |
Region | | |
Tigray | 159 | 5.80 |
Afar | 16 | 0.57 |
Amhara | 687 | 25.14 |
Oromia | 1,083 | 39.62 |
Somali | 62 | 2.28 |
Benishangul | 30 | 1.09 |
SNNP | 596 | 21.79 |
Gambella | 6 | 0.21 |
Harari | 5 | 0.18 |
Addis Ababa | 78 | 2.86 |
Dire Dawa | 12 | 0.45 |
Religion | | |
Orthodox | 1,032 | 38.41 |
Muslim | 1,107 | 41.20 |
Protestant | 501 | 18.65 |
Traditional | 19 | 0.71 |
Catholic | 14 | 0.52 |
Other | 14 | 0.52 |
Educational status | | |
No education | 1,707 | 62.43 |
Primary | 762 | 27.86 |
Secondary | 168 | 6.16 |
Higher | 97 | 3.55 |
Currently working | | |
Yes | 851 | 31.13 |
No | 1,883 | 68.87 |
Smokes cigarettes | | |
Yes | 2,718 | 99.41 |
No | 16 | 0.59 |
Attitudes toward wife beating | | |
Have | 1,876 | 68.63 |
Have no | 858 | 31.37 |
Frequency of listening to radio | | |
Not at all | 1,949 | 71.30 |
Less than once a week | 387 | 14.16 |
At least once a week | 398 | 14.54 |
Frequency of watching television | | |
Not at all | 2,156 | 78.85 |
Less than once a week | 275 | 10.07 |
At least once a week | 303 | 11.08 |
Currently pregnant | | |
Yes | 301 | 11.01 |
No or unsure | 2,433 | 88.99 |
Household wealth index | | |
Poorest | 483 | 17.68 |
Poorer | 584 | 21.37 |
Middle | 574 | 20.98 |
Richer | 544 | 19.91 |
Richest | 549 | 20.06 |
Women’s decision-making autonomy | | |
Yes | 1,890 | 69.00 |
No | 844 | 31.00 |
Husband/partner age | | |
15–19 | 13 | 0.47 |
20–24 | 122 | 4.47 |
25–29 | 434 | 15.88 |
30–34 | 565 | 20.65 |
35–39 | 473 | 17.29 |
40–44 | 466 | 17.06 |
45–49 | 344 | 12.59 |
50–54 | 204 | 7.45 |
>55 | 114 | 4.13 |
Husband/partner's education level | | |
No education | 1,225 | 44.80 |
Primary | 1,075 | 39.34 |
Secondary | 229 | 8.37 |
Higher | 190 | 6.94 |
Don’t know | 15 | 0.55 |
Husband/partner's working status | | |
Yes | 2,583 | 94.49 |
No | 151 | 5.51 |
Husband/partner drinks alcohol | | |
Yes | 826 | 30.23 |
No | 1,908 | 69.77 |
SNNP: Southern Nation and Nationality and Peoples |
Spatial distribution of intimate partner violence
The spatial distribution of IPV was found to be clustered in Ethiopia with Global Moran’s I 0.09 (p < 0.001). Given the z-score of 5.45, there is less than 1% likelihood that this clustered pattern could be the result of random chance. The bright red and blue color to the end tails shows an increased significance level (Fig. 2). Spatial clustering of IPV was found at regional levels. The highest IPV was spatially clustered in Oromia, SNNPR,Somalia and Amhara (Fig. 3).
Spatial SaTScan analysis of intimate partner violence (Bernoulli based model)
Spatial scan statistics detected a total of high and modest preforming spatial cluster of IPV. Among these, 10 clusters were high performing cluster (LLR = 40.67, RR = 2.46, P-value < 0.001) and 4 clusters were lowest performing cluster (LLR = 13.19, RR = 1.98, P-value < 0.001).The highest performing clusters of IPV were identified in Oromia, Somali and SNNPR Table 2. The bright red colors (rings) indicate that the most statistically significant spatial windows of IPV. There was high IPV within the cluster than outside the cluster (Fig. 4).
Table 2
Significant spatial clusters with high rate intimate partner violence among women in Ethiopia, 2016
Cluster | Enumeration area (cluster) identified | Coordinate (radius) | Population | Case | RR | LLR | P-value |
1 | 377, 394, 422, 7, 34, 289, 480, 398, 316, 601 | (5.203234 N, 40.019732 E) / 187.83 km | 99 | 75 | 2.46 | 40.67 | < 0.001 |
2 | 447, 486, 227, 432 | (7.527086 N, 36.970948 E) / 45.13 km | 67 | 42 | 1.98 | 13.19 | < 0.001 |
LLR: Likelihood ratio; RR: Relative risk |
Determinant factors of intimate partner violence
The final model for determinant factors IPV is shown in Fig. 5 and Table 3. This model had included twelve exogenous variables (age, religion, region, wealth index, frequency of watching television, smokes cigarettes, currently pregnant, attitudes toward wife beating Women’s decision-making autonomy, husband/partner age, husband/partner's education level, husband/partner drinks alcohol) and three endogenous (physical, emotional and sexual violence). All path coefficients were statistically significant at an alpha level of 0.05.
Numerous variables, namely residence, educational status, currently working, frequency of listening to radio, husband/partner's education level, husband/partner's working status were excluded from the final model as their effect were not statistically significant at an alpha level of 0.05.
The likelihood of experiencing physical violence was decreased by 46% among women with age 15–19 than women with age 25–29. Traditional religion followers were 3.64 times more likely to be sexually violated than Muslim religion followers. The odds of emotional violence were decreased by 44% among richest than the poorest.
The odds of experiencing physical violence was decreased in Tigray, Afar, Amhara, Gambella, Benishangul, SNNP and Somali as compare with Oromia region. In addition, the likelihood of emotional violence was decreased Afar, Amhara and Somali when it compares with Oromia region. Furthermore, the chance of sexual violence was decreased among women from Tigray, Afar, Amhara, Somali, Benishangul, SNNP, Harari, Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa and Somali compared to those from Oromia region.
[F_Television: frequency of watching television, Hub_Age: Husband/partner age, Women’s-DMA: Women’s decision-making autonomy, Hub_Drinksalchol: Husband/partner drinks alcohol, Hub_Edu: Husband/partner's education level, HH_Wealth: Household wealth index, Phy_violence: Physical violence, Emo_violence: Emotional violence
The likelihood of experiencing physical violence were decreased by 36% and 42% among women who were watching television less than once a week and at least once a week as compared with those were not watching television at all respectively. Smoker women were 2.59 times more likely to be emotionally violated than their counterpart. Pregnant women were 1.62 times more probable to be sexually violated than non-pregnant women.
Women who have attitudes toward wife beating were 1.32 times more likely to be physically violated than their counterpart. The chances of physical, emotional and sexual violence were decreased by 28%, 30% and 35% among women who had decision making autonomy than their counterparts respectively.
Husband /partner’s age, educational level and alcohol drinking status were significant husband /partner related factors that determine IPV. The likelihoods of emotional violence were decreased by 49% and 38% among husband/partner’s age with 20–24 and 25–29 as compared with husband/partner’s age with 30–34 respectively. The odd of sexual violence was decreased by 61% among higher educated husband/partner than uneducated. Drinker husband /partner were 3.12, 2.44 and 2.58 times more likely to physically, emotionally and sexually violate his wife/ partner than their counterparts respectively.
Table 3
Determinant factors of intimate partner violence among reproductive age group women in Ethiopia, 2016
Variables | Physical violence | Emotional Violence | Sexual Violence |
AOR | 95% CI | AOR | 95% CI | AOR | 95% CI |
Age | | | | | | |
25–29 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
15–19 | 0.54 | (0.31–0.93) | - | - | - | - |
20–24 | 0.97 | (0.71–1.32) | - | - | - | - |
30–34 | 1.06 | (0.80–1.43) | - | - | - | - |
35–39 | 1.30 | (0.95–1.77) | - | - | - | - |
40–44 | 1.06 | (0.71–1.57) | - | - | - | - |
45–49 | 1.04 | (0.62–1.76) | - | - | - | - |
Religion | | | | | | |
Muslim | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Orthodox | - | - | - | - | 0.88 | (0.54–1.42) |
Protestant | - | - | - | - | 0.85 | (0.51–1.41) |
Traditional | - | - | - | - | 3.64 | (1.19–11.15) |
Catholic | - | - | - | - | 0.66 | (0.08–5.44) |
Region | | | | | | |
Oromia | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Tigray | 0.22 | (0.13–0.34) | 0.71 | (0.48–1.06) | 0.52 | (0.29–0.94) |
Afar | 0.36 | (0.21–0.62) | 0.46 | (0.26–0.81) | 0.18 | (0.06–0.51) |
Amhara | 0.36 | (0.25–0.52) | 0.57 | (0.40–0.82) | 0.42 | (0.25–0.71) |
Somali | 0.16 | (0.09–0.31) | 0.21 | (0.11–0.38) | 0.03 | (0.01–0.21) |
Benishangul | 0.50 | (0.34–0.74) | 0.85 | (0.58–1.24) | 0.36 | (0.20–0.63) |
SNNP | 0.53 | (0.38–0.75) | 0.80 | (0.57–1.12) | 0.40 | (0.23–0.69) |
Gambella | 0.67 | (0.43–1.06) | 0.97 | (0.62–1.53) | 0.50 | (0.25–1.01) |
Harari | 1.20 | (0.76–1.89) | 1.99 | (1.28–3.09) | 0.42 | (0.18–0.97) |
Addis Ababa | 0.60 | (0.35–1.05) | 0.79 | (0.46–1.36) | 0.21 | (0.08–0.56) |
Dire Dawa | 0.73 | (0.46–1.16) | 1.12 | (0.71–1.78) | 0.37 | (0.17–0.80) |
Wealth index | | | | | | |
Poorest | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Poorer | - | - | 0.91 | (0.67–1.23) | - | - |
Middle | - | - | 1.01 | (0.73–1.38) | - | - |
Richer | - | - | 0.87 | (0.63–1.21) | - | - |
Richest | - | - | 0.56 | (0.40–0.78) | - | - |
Frequency of watching television | | | | | | |
Not at all | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Less than once a week | 0.64 | (0.45–0.93) | - | - | - | - |
At least once a week | 0.58 | (0.41–0.83) | - | - | - | - |
Smokes cigarettes | | | | | | |
No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Yes | - | - | 2.59 | (1.18–5.67) | - | - |
Currently pregnant | | | | | | |
No or unsure | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Yes | - | - | - | - | 1.62 | (1.06–2.46) |
Attitudes toward wife beating | | | | | | |
Have no | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Have | 1.31 | (1.05–1.65) | - | - | - | - |
Women’s decision-making autonomy | | | | | | |
No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Yes | 0.72 | (0.58–0.89) | 0.70 | (0.57–0.86) | 0.65 | (0.47–0.89) |
Husband/partner age | | | | | | |
30–34 | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
15–19 | - | - | 0.60 | (0.12–3.03) | - | - |
20–24 | - | - | 0.51 | (0.30–0.87) | - | - |
25–29 | - | - | 0.62 | (0.45–0.87) | - | - |
35–39 | - | - | 0.77 | (0.57–1.05) | - | - |
40–44 | - | - | 1.05 | (0.77–1.44) | - | - |
45–49 | - | - | 1.14 | (0.81–1.61) | - | - |
50–54 | - | - | 1.10 | (0.73–1.65) | - | - |
55–59 | - | - | 1.50 | (0.90 − 0.50) | - | - |
Husband/partner's education level | | | | | | |
No education | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Primary | - | - | - | - | 1.13 | (0.81–1.58) |
Secondary | - | - | - | - | 0.71 | (0.40–1.29) |
Higher | - | - | - | - | 0.39 | (0.16–0.93) |
Don’t know | - | - | - | - | 1.19 | (0.26–5.42) |
Husband/partner drinks alcohol | | | | | | |
No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
Yes | 3.12 | (2.45–3.97) | 2.44 | (1.94–3.08) | 2.58 | (1.75–3.80) |
SNNP: Southern Nation and Nationality and Peoples |