Metals Health Nexus: Research, Impact, Review, and Sustainable Remediation

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3644698/v1

Heavy metal presence in the environment is a recognized risk factor for various gastrointestinal (GI) illnesses globally. Over the course of two years, we conducted an investigation in the Calcutta textile industrial region, which has been producing textiles for over a century. We examined toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni) in the waste of small-scale BD units and how it affected soil, fruit, and other Agro-samples. The inhabitants in the area were experiencing gastrointestinal sickness, which prompted our study. People in that region and its hinterland use surface water and intake daily Agro-products which contain 2 to 40 times higher (Pb, Cd, Ni) lead, cadmium, and nickel than the standard limit of WHO/FAO while nutrient (zinc) was found at 50 times lower than expected. The region’s soil samples tested positive for potentially heavy metals, suggesting a risk of GI disorders, ulcers, and cancer. This is also verified by observations/surveys for 2 years with local people.

Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology

Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences

Health sciences/Gastroenterology

Health sciences/Risk factors

Physical sciences/Engineering

Wastewater

Toxic metals

Fruits and vegetables

Health risk

Gastroenterology

Remediation

Eco-planning

Nanoparticle.

Exposure to toxic metals is a commonly known hazard issue.
Vegetable and fruit samples contained lead, cadmium, and nickel higher than the standard limit, while zinc is less than expected.
There was an intense connection between the absorptions of toxic chemicals/metals in aquaplanes and Agro products.
The agricultural land and Agro-products in the region have noteworthy concentrations of potentially heavy metals.
It could be connected with higher prevalence and/or susceptibility to GI disorders, Gastroenterology, ulcers, and cancer associated with poor socioeconomic background.
Remediation process through Eco-planning and nanoparticle techniques

Large quantity wastewater from the textile and garment industries is released into the environment, without any treatment. During the multiple steps of process operations, wastewater is generated with a variety of chemicals (Kumaraswamy, 1999, Gupta et al., 2004). Metals including cadmium(Cd), chromium(Cr), nickel(Ni), arsenic(As), and lead (Pb) are a hazardous group of chemicals for humans (Rossman and Waalkes, 2003) which are found in raw effluent, soil, fruits, and vegetable and humans through the food chain.

Agricultural growth has been negatively affected due to the accumulation of toxic metals As a result, these affect the production and class of soil, surface water, and agro-products like vegetables, fruits, and crops because lead, Nickel, Cadmium, Arsenic, and Chromium are venomous stated by Hellawell, 1986; Breekle, and Kahle, 1992. The uptake of toxic metals by agri-products from hazardous soil and water is of inordinate apprehension for humans, animals, and aquatic biota in water bodies. Because settling metals get concentrated in vegetables, fruits, and foliage, which pretenses health risks to users, as stated by Al Jassir et al., 2005; Fytianos, et al., 2001; Sobukola, et al., 2010; Husain, et al., 1995; Mohamed, 2000; Saracoglu, et al., 2009; Parveen, et al., 2003; Cui, et al., 2004.

The accessibility of a substantial amount of human resources with knowledge of sewing, knitting, etc. of clothes battered with meager socio-economic situations in these regions only the many ecological risk issues related to the growth of this type of harmful units as well suffering from an upper G.I syndrome and ulcers, kidney and other complaints stated by Longo, 1998. The research steered aims to examine the presence of toxic metals in raw wastewater, surface water, agricultural land, and products, to determine contamination and its impact on health through regular consumption, in gastroenterology and G.I disorder and verified through a survey at the site and also organizing an online structured questionnaire throughout India and other countries.

We conducted the present study in the four seasons: summer, rainy, autumn, and winter. Effluent has been extracted from 36 units, and 4 samples have been obtained from various spots near the current canal located in the region. Samples were gathered in distinct seasons during both years. Our analysis included physicochemical testing of all samples collected.

All collection, preservation, testing, and observation of wastewater, surface water, and underground water samples have been conducted per the APHA (2005) standard, while the FAO (2017) standard has been followed for agricultural products.

A verbal questionnaire-based survey cum observation was done to study the health situation of the villagers of the cluster due to the intake of contaminated vegetables and fruits.

“Informed consent has been obtained from all participants involved in the study”.

Observations on health problems and other ethical approvals were given by the ethics committee of HOD, Ecological Studies, Kalyani University (KU) and H.O.D, Environmental Management, IISWBM, Calcutta University,(CU) India that approved the study.

The verbal field observation was conducted by Biman Gati Gupta, KU, and Abir das, IISWBM, CU, with the format from the villagers/ local inhabitants without the name of the respondent for privacy.

It is also stated that all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. (Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. 2004)

Further, experimental research and field studies, on plant (either cultivated or wild)material- fruits (papaya, guava, etc., and vegetables), including the collection of plant material from local village markets have complied with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation.

Table 1 showcases the acceptable thresholds for toxic metals, such as lead (Pb), nickel ( Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), etc., in soil and other Agro-based goods, according to the WHO/FAO standards of 2001 and 2007 (Adu et al., 2012). Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 provide estimates of the accumulated levels of the toxic metals Pb, Ni, Zn, and Cd in wastewater, surface water, deep tube well, and agricultural land. Table 6 displays the metals present in fruits and vegetables. - 31 samples were gathered within two years. The samples comprised 36 items, including canal water (9), raw effluent (8), surface water (5), deep tube well water (2), soil (6), and 6 obtained

Table: 1: Safe Permissible Limit of Heavy Metals in Fruits, Vegetables, Water, and Soil as FAO /WHO standard 2001, 2007 and IS: 10500:1993

Metal	Fruits/Veg. ( mg/kg)	Soil ( mg/kg)	Water (mg/l)	Papaya (mg/kg)	Guava (mg/kg)	Effluent IS:10500 (mg/l)
Cu	73	5-5.6	2			3.0
Pb	0.30	2-13.4	0.01	Nd	0.58	0.10
Cd	0.20	0.1	0.003	Nd	Nd	1.0
Cr	0.1-1	10-80	0.05			2.0
Zn	99.4	60-780	3			15
Ni	1-10	10-50	0.02	0.26	Nd	3

Nd= not detectable, Source a=Adue et.al 2012

Table 2: Pb concentration in effluent, canal, pond, tube well water and soil

Sl. No	Sample & year	Canal Water (mg/l)	Effluent (mg/l)	Pond water (mg/l)	Tube well water (mg/l)	Soil (mg/kg)
1.	*S-12	0.05	0.07	0.01	0.007	1.16
2	S-12	0.05	0.08	0.25	------	11.14
3.	S-12	0.104	-----	------	------	17.32
4.	S-12	0.03	-----	------	------	41.20
5.	S-13	0.014	0.25	0.016	0.058	90.80
6.	S-13	0.15	1.84	0.01	------	------
7.	S-13	0.10	0.10	------	------	------
8.	S-13	0.10	0.14	------	------	------
9.	S-13	----	0.17	------	------	------
	Mean	0..38	0.074	0.07	0.02	32.32
	S.D	0.27	0.67	0.10	0.02	32.07

*S-12, 13 indicates sample of the 1st year and 2^nd year. As per WHO safe limits of Pb concentration in canal water, Effluent, Pond water, tube well water, and soil were very significantly higher (39-fold, 7-fold, 7-fold, 10-fold, ). Further, Mean Pb concentration was found in canal water > soil> effluent ˃ Pond ≥ tube well water. Again, Pb level increases from year 1^st year to 2^nd year in canal water (0.03 mg/l to 0.15 mg/l), effluent (0.07mg/l to 1.84 mg/l), and tube well water (0.007 mg/l to 0.058 mg/l), and soil (from 1.16mg/kg to 90.80 mg/kg)

Table 3: Content of Nickel in the effluent, canal water, pond, and tube well water.

Sample/ Year	Canal water (mg/l)	Effluent (mg/l)	pond (mg/l)	Tube well (mg/kg)	Soil(mg/kg)
S-12	0.05	-	-	-	0.34
S-12	0.05	-	-	-	14.93
S-12	0.07	-	-	-	34.77
S-12	0.05	-	-	-	-
S-13	0.037	0.049	0.02	0.016	-
S-13	0.037	0.093	-	-	-
Mean	0.05	0.07	0.02	0.016	16.68

SD	0.01	0.02	-	-	14.11

As per the sample in Year 2012,13, Mean Ni in Effluent, canal, pond water, and soil was significantly Higher 4-fold, 3-fold, normal, and 2-fold) and lower in Tube well water.

Table 4: Content of Zinc in the effluent, canal water, pond, tube well water, and soil

Sample	Canal water	Effluent	Pond water	Tube well water	Soil
	Mg/l	Mg/l	Mg/l	Mg/l	Mg/kg
*S-12	0.05	0.94	0.004	1.15	250.84
S-12	0.28	0.15	-----	------	54.26
S-12	0.02	-----	-----	------	980.4
S-12	0.18	-----	-----	------	-------
S-13	0.15	0.55	0.05	0	------
S-13	-----	0.07	------	------	------
S-13	-----	0.09	------	------	------
Mean	0.14	0.36	0.027	1.15	428.50
S.D	0.09	0.33	0.025	----	398.41

As per WHO limits mean Zn level in effluent, canal, pond, tube well water and soil were very significantly lower (8- fold, 21-fold, 111- fold, 3- fold, 2- fold).

Table 5: Content of Cadmium (Cd) in Soil

Sample/ year	Soil mg/kg
S -12	0.94
S-12	0.53
R-12	1.29
Mean	0.92
S.D	0.31

As per WHO standard, the Concentration of Cd in Soil was lower ( 9 fold)

Table 6: Metal concentration papaya and coconut water, guava, coix grass and water hyacinth for the year 2013

Metal	Papaya mg/kg	Coconut water mg/l	Guava mg/kg	Coix grass mg/kg	Water Hyacinth mg/kg
Pb	0.45	0.41	12.62	0.66	2.75
Cd	----	----	1.47	0.10	0.15
Cr	----	----	0.10	0.145	0.27
Zn	1.96	0.39	----	13.15

Pb levels significantly higher (2-fold, 1.5-fold, 42-fold, 2- fold, 9- fold) , safe limits of Cd in Guava were

Significantly higher ( 7- fold, ), Safe limit of Cr in Guava was normal and Safe limit of Zn in Papaya

Coconut water and Coix grass was significantly Lower 50- fold, 8 –fold, 8 – fold.

from fruits and vegetables. Pb was found to accumulate at significantly higher levels in canal water, effluent, pond water, tube well water, and soil (38.9x, 6.7x, 7.1x, 2.1x, and 16.2x). The average accumulation of Pb was higher in canal water compared to soil, which was higher than in wastewater, pond, and deep tube well water.

The concentration of Pb in canal water increased from 0.105 mg/L to 0.151 mg/L, while in the effluent it increased from 0.08 mg/L to 0.17 mg/L. The concentration of Pb in tube well water increased from 0.007 mg/L to 0.058 mg/L between the first and second years. - Ni was found 4.1 times, 3.1 times, and 19 times higher than normal in the effluent, surface water, and agricultural land, respectively, as well as in the pond and deep tube well water. The zinc levels in the wastewater, canal, pond, tube well water, and soil are significantly below the WHO standard. The soil sample exhibited a Cd level below nine times. Therefore, the hierarchy of heavy metal levels in the soil is as trails: Pb > Ni > Zn > Cd.

Papaya, coconut water, guava, long grass, and Water hyacinth have Pb levels exceeding WHO's safe limits. The level of Cd detected in Guava was significantly elevated. - The level of Guava Cr was within normal range, whereas Papaya, Coconut water, and long grass exhibited Zn levels far below the FAO/WHO standards.

Table 8 presents the customary health hazard evaluation. The concentrations (mg/L) of various metals in Guava are presented in Table 9, whereas Table 10 pertains to coconut water. The survey results of the disease profile due to metal intake are in Table 11, and the survey results of the socioeconomic condition are in Table 12. Further Figure. 1. shows the toxic metal contamination in food crops and the mechanisms of their entrance, Figure 2. Highlighted the concentration of different heavy metals in soils. Figure 3 shows Lead and Zinc levels in fruits, vegetables, and plants compared to the WHO/FAO and IS:10500:1993 safe limits. All tables and figures are available in the Tables and Figures section.

The statistical examination was organized by the SPSS program (version 11) and evaluated by leading a one-way investigation of variance (ANOVA) monitored by Duncan’s manifold range test at a 5% level.

The study revealed that the absorption of carcinogenic metals (Pb, Ni, and Cd) in soil and fruits, vegetables, and plants is high, while the concentration of nutrient Zn is low. People in the study region consume these Agro-products listed above regularly. They belong to low-income groups and education levels as per a socio-economic study in this area. Likewise, animals consume long grass and water hyacinths. It shows that the locals consumed toxic metals are the greatest hazard in the inorganic form engrossed in intake by daily food, fruits, water, and air-breathing (Ferner,2001) and a low level of zinc nutrient intake. Therefore, it’s been studied that apart from other issues such as kidney, joint, and reproductive system dysfunction, neurological disorder, and severe harm to the gastrointestinal tract, ulcers and cancer (Ogwuebgu and Muhanga, 2005, McCluggage, 1991, INECAR, 2000), were found in the study's area.

The study found that Lead units were most commonly found in the pattern of canal Pb water, followed by Pb soil, Pb effluent, Pb pond, and finally, Pb tube well water. In the canal, As per WHO norms, Pb soil 90.80 mg/kg is 18 times higher. The effluent released from BD industries flows into the nearby canal and agricultural land (O.E. Orisakwe et al., 2012). The concentration of lead in the raw effluent has exceeded the safe limit set by IS: 10500, 1993 by 18 times, which is 0.1mg/l.

- An ascending trend was observed in the estimated Ni units found in canal water, ranging from 0.05mg/l to 0.07mg/l. As a result, the Ni concentration in the soil experienced a magnification from 0 to 34.20 mg/kg, culminating in 34.75 mg/kg in the subsequent two years.

The soil's Ni concentration was 3 mg/kg, surpassing the limit stated in IS:10500(1993) by a factor of 12. - The zinc concentration in canal water varies from 0.02 to 0.18 mg/L, falling below the IS: 10500:1993 discharge limit of 15.0 mg/L. The soil displayed an average Zn concentration of 428.5 mg/kg, with a range of 54.26-948.4 mg/kg, which is lower than the WHO recommended standard of 760 mg/kg. Low Zn levels have been discovered in fruits and vegetables. Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 depict the heavy metal concentration in soil, fruits, and vegetables. According to the research findings presented in Table 6, papaya, guava, and coconut water exhibit elevated levels of heavy metals (Pb and Ni), whereas zinc displays reduced levels.

Workers in both industrialized and developing countries have been exposed to lead in mines, smelters, metalwork, textile mills, BD units, and tanneries. Lead that is disseminated in the air and from the waste of factories can end up in the soil and water, and eventually be disbursed by humans. Children are more susceptible to gastrointestinal problems, abdominal pains, the signs of a nervous breakdown, and issues concentrating.

Lead was labeled as a possible social carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1987. Evidence of lead-causing cancer is now clear, with potential side effects including lung, stomach, and glioma cancers.

The concentration of carcinogenic metals (Pb, Ni, and Cd) was high in soil and fruits, vegetables, and plants, but Zn was low.. People in the study region consume these Agro-products listed above regularly. As per a socio-economic study in this region, they pertain to low-income brackets and educational levels. Animals ingest lengthy grass and water hyacinth. The ingestion of food, air, and water are the main fonts of toxic metals, which pose a significant threat to the community. Insufficient zinc intake is evident according to (Ferner, 2001). Thus, the research indicates that the study area experienced a range of health issues, including kidney, joint, and reproductive system dysfunction, neurological illness, and severe harm to the gastrointestinal tract. Additionally, ulcers and cancer were also identified as health concerns in the area (Ogwuebgu and Muhanga, 2005, McCluggage, 1991, INECAR, 2000).

5.1 Management of toxic metals in the soil–crop arrangement

To protect the health of people everywhere, food safety is a necessity. However, it is being threatened by toxic metals from human-made sources such as wastewater irrigation, sludge application, and industrial effluents. Eliminating toxic metals from soil could avert the binge of carcinogenic metals in the soil–plant system, as anthropogenic causes of toxic metals loom it. There is a thorough understanding of how toxic metals move from the soil to crops. Efforts should reduce metal concentrations in the soil to sojourn them from getting into crops. Remediation tools should be eco-friendly, swift, and economical. Physical, biological, ecological, and chemical methods can remediate heavy metals in soil (Fig.1). Developments in nanotechnology may help to restore metal pollutants. Incorporating human health risk assessment with geospatial know-how, the H-G concept is employed to gauge geographical indicators, rapidly determine apprehensive soil sites, and construct applicable amelioration. To protect the health of people everywhere, food safety is a necessity.

6.1 Metals in Papaya

The mean concentrations of different metals (mg/kg) in papaya samples showed that the metal concentrations in papaya varied in the following order: Na > Fe > Al >Zn > Pb (P<0.05), which finds concordance with the order of metallic concentrations in the soil where papaya was grown. The concentration factors of different metals of papaya were estimated as Pb (0.012), Fe (5.1), and Zn (0.012). The vegetable was devoid of any load of Cr and Cd but the mean concentrations of Pb, Fe, and Al were found to be 5, 1.6 fold, and 1.05 fold higher than the maximum permissible limits of metals in vegetables for human consumption as prescribed by FAO/WHO (2011) (Table 7). The health risk quotients for Pb are estimated as per the Hakanson model (Hakanson, 1980) to be 8.78 for adults and 7.28 for children which are far exceeding the threshold level of 1.00 as per USEPA (2002) considering the daily consumption of papaya by adults (25-55 years) and child between 13-15 years of age (Table 8). These results can be also corroborated by the findings of several other studies (Tripathy et al., 1997; Maihara and Fávaro, 2006; Chary et al., 2008; Chary et al., 2008; Khan et al., 2008; Antonious, and Kochhar, 2009; Volpe et al., 2009, Chauhan and Chauhan, 2014.

Table 7: Concentrations of different metals in green papaya

Parameters	Na	Pb	Fe	Zn	Al
Samples	mg/kg	mg/kg	mg/kg	mg/kg	mg/kg
S1	65.88	0.51	7.06	1.64	5.1
S2	66.72	0.62	10.86	3.01	7.56
S3	64.13	0.27	9.75	2.46	3.85
S4	72.91	0.69	6.97	3.01	8.13
S5	65.86	0.3	7.59	1.66	7.84
S6	63.46	0.75	11.57	2.2	3.88
S7	62.11	0.45	3.25	1.96	7.56
Mean	65.87	0.51	8.15	2.28	6.27
Maximum	72.91	0.75	11.57	3.01	8.13
Minimum	63.46	0.27	3.25	1.64	3.85
Std.Dev	3.49	0.19	2.84	0.58	1.92
FAO/WHO (2011)	---	0.10	5.0	3.0	6.00
Condition/ Fold higher	---	5	1.6	low	1.05

Table 8: Health risk (HRI) assessment due to metals in Papaya

	Unit mg/kg	HQ Adult	HQ Child	DDI	DIM	HRI
Mean Pb concentration	0.51	8.70	7.28	0.0008	0. 003	0.86
Mean Al concentration	5.1	4.60	3.21	0.0001	0.001	0.21
Total HRI						1.07
HQ Standard		1.00	1.00			1.00

DDI=Daily dietary Index, DIM=Daily intake of metal , HRI= Health risk index, Adult=55 year

Based on US EPA(2002) and Hakanson (1980) for HQ and US EPA (2012) for HRI

6.2 Metals in Guava

The mean concentration of different metals (mg/kg) in guava samples(Table 9) showed that there appeared a significant variation in different metal concentrations in the following order: Na >Al, Fe > Zn >Pb (P<0.05) which is closely similar to papaya and that is consistent with the order of metallic concentrations in the soil where guava was grown.

Table 9 : Concentrations (mg/L) of different metals in Guava

Samples	Unit	Cd	Pb	Zn
S1	mg/L	0.005	0.41	0.36
S2	mg/L	0.017	0.052	0.39
S3	mg/L	0.009	0.161	0.775
S4	mg/L	0.019	0.172	0.835
S5	mg/L	0.009	0.181	0.431
S6	mg/L	0.019	0.18	0.853
S7	mg/L	0.009	0.197	0.566
Mean		0.01	0.19	0.6
Maximum		0.02	0.41	0.85
Minimum		0.01	0.52	0.85
Std. dev.		0.01	0.11	0.22
FAO/WHO (2011)		0.003	0.01	5.0

The mean concentrations of different metals also show that guava is found to be laced with a higher concentration of Pb (4 fold) and Al (1.15 fold). Considering the maximum allowable concentration as per FAO/WHO (2011). The concentration factors of different metals in guava showed that the metallic transfer and concentration were encountered for Fe (3.78) followed by Zn (0.017) and Pb (0.009). Further, it was noticed that guava accumulated more Zn but less Pb and Fe compared to papaya. The health hazard quotients calculated based on the Hakanson model (Hakanson, 1980) for adults in the age group of 25—55 years and children under the age group of 12—15 years have been estimated as 1.15 and 1.78, respectively, both exceeding the threshold level (i.e.1.00) of human risk considering the daily intake of metal contaminated guava as per USEPA (2002). These show that guava, which is popularly considered equivalent to apples to poor people, is not fit for consumption. The study results are matching with the similar type of work by Biego,1998, Wang et al.,2005, Sato et al.,2005, Melo,2009, Singh et al.,2010, and Youssef and Eissa, 2015.

6.3 Metals in Coconut Water

The coconut samples grown were found to be contaminated with Pb, Cd, and Zn, which can be traced to the metal-contaminated source soil they were grown. The concentration factors of different metals of coconut water with that of soil have been estimated as Pb (0.004), Zn (0.003), and Cd (0.107). The mean concentration of different metals (mg/kg) in coconut water samples (Table 10) showed that there appeared a significant variation in different metal concentrations in the following order: Zn > Pb > Cd (P < 0.05), which is like papaya and guava. The findings are consistent with the order of metallic concentrations in the soil where coconut was grown. The coconut water was found to be additionally contaminated with Cd, but devoid of Al.

Table 10: Concentrations (mg/L) of different metals in coconut water collected from local area

Details (mg/L)	Cd(mg/L)	Pb(mg/L)	Zn(mg/L)
Mean	0.01	0.19	0.60
Maximum	0.019	0.41	0.85
Minimum	0.009	0.052	0.36
Std. Dev.	0.01	0.11	0.22
Permissible Standard FAO,2002	0.01	0.05	5.00
Higher/Lower(Fold)	At par	4	(8.33)
Condition	Less nutrient		Less nutrient

Note : limits of permissible concentration as per FAO/WHO,2002

The mean concentrations (mg/L) of Pb (0.19), and Cd (0.01) present in coconut water samples (Table 10) are higher than the permissible limit for drinking water as per IS: 10500 (2012) and WHO (2003). Compared to the permissible limits of metals for coconut water prescribed by FAO/ WHO (2002) the metal loads are 3.8 and 3.3 fold higher for Pb and Cd, respectively, as shown in Table 10.

The heavy metal hazard quotients arising because of contamination of Pb in coconut water are 3.2 for adults and 2.7 for children, which exceed the permissible metal concentration limit as prescribed by the Hakanson model (Hakanson, 1980). Considering all vegetables and fruits, it shows that Pb papaya> Pb guava> Pb coconut and Zn papaya> Zn guava >Zn papaya. The findings show that coconut water is not suitable for drinking. The result of the study is matching with work by Subramanian et al. (1988); Dekov et al. (1998); Caeiro et al. (2005); Buccolieri et al. (2006); Cuculic et al. (2009); Braun et al.(2009). The diseases are related to socioeconomic factors, hygiene, and exposure to microorganisms. The exact role of each of the factors is so far inconclusive Aamodt, G, et al.,2008). Several studies show a variable geographic distribution within countries (Armitage EL, et al.(2004), Baumgart DC, and Carding SR (2007), Nerich V, et al. (2006)

This region is industrializing rapidly, resulting in a surge of health issues. Rapid economic growth will be analyzed as ‘four Ds’: disruption, deprivation, disease, and demise. To address these issues, society must be mobilized to create new structures and eco-plan the area to act as a force of improvement and remedy the consequences. Urban areas must be adequately invested in to have a proper preventative health set-up and regulatory system, as well as a humane social safety system. (S.Szreter,2004).

The field observation/ survey reveals the villagers are suffering from digestive problems, vomiting, and discoloration of teeth because of intake of contaminated vegetables, fruits, and water, Major gastrointestinal (GI) problems vary from digestive problems to hepatitis with the major prevalence of GI problems (40%). The health status based on the observation/survey is given in Table 11.

Table 11: Disease profile

Serial no	Waterborne diseases	Yes (%)	Remarks
1	Digestive problem	78.00%	Related to Gastroenterology
2	Diarrhea	12.32%	Related to Gastroenterology
3	Dysentery	35.61%	Related to Gastroenterology
4	Typhoid	8.00%	-----
5	Cholera	7.00%	Related to Gastroenterology
6	Hepatitis/liver trouble	6.84%	Related to Gastroenterology
7	Vomiting	53.42%	Related to Gastroenterology
8	Discoloration of teeth	63.01%	Related to Gastroenterology

Similar results have been found in Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and other parts of India. Previous studies have dealt with the occurrence of gastrointestinal cancer (Turkdogan et al., 2002) as well as cancer of the pancreas, urinary bladder, or prostate (Waalkes and Rehm, 1994). Lead, cadmium and chromium could be seen gathered in the shoots and roots of plants at low, medium, and higher concentrations (Verma and Dubey, 2003; the Same results were also got by (Bashdar Abuzed Sadee, Rasul Jameel Ali, 2023).

In the survey, we found that 41.09% are residents of the area and 58.91% are drifted from adjoining areas. Migrated laborers filled up the opening of manpower requirement in the cluster as a sufficient workforce is not available in the area and some residents were unwilling to do this kind of hazardous job. Among the respondent 78.08%, and 17.08% respectively from age groups of 21-40 years and ˃55 years. 89.04% and 10.96% are literate and illiterate respectively, out of 89.04%, lower school level from class I-IV (45.20%) have been completed and 42.46% have completed intermediate school level studies.

It is clear from the study that 56% of the inhabitants are engaged in textile (B & D), knitting, printing, and other B&D-related activities, 32% are occupied in other trades of steel furniture, industries of small steel items, grocery shop, wooden furniture, etc. and 12% are involved as auto, bus, minibus driver and automobile jobs. 1.36%, 86.32%, and 12.32% of villagers having annual income ≤Rs.36, 000, ≥ Rs. 60,000 ($870), and ≥Rs.1, 20,000 ($1740) respectively against annual per capita income of Rs.74,380($1065) of India (MSPI,2015) and appended in Table 12.

Table 12: Socioeconomic profile based on survey

Sl No.	Particulars	Details	Other information
1	Type of respondent	Male: 84.94%	Female: 15.06%
2	Type of Respondent	Local: 41.09%	Migrated:58.91 %
3	Age group	21—40yrs: 78.08%	50 -55 yr: 17.08%
4	Literacy rate	Literate : 89.04%	Illiterate: 10.96%
5	Type of Literacy	Class I—IV: 45.28%	Class V—X:25.00 % Class X-XII: 12.00% Higher Education: 6.85 % Balance NA : 10.95%
6	Type of Occupation	Textile Bleaching and dyeing: 56.00 %	Different small business : 32.00%, Automobile & 0thers : 12.00%
7	Annual Income	≤Rs. 36,000/- : 1.36 %	≥ Rs.60,000/- : 86.32% ≥1,20,000/- : 12.32%

9.1 Eco-Textile Park

It’s essential to take immediate action to move the current units to a planned industrial estate with a limited size of 200-400 units and include a common effluent treatment plant, with pre-treatment, secondary treatment, and membrane-based treatment with water reuse, and eco-planning of the region to get quality water for reducing metal contamination in Agro-products, the hazardous impact on human health and saving of a million gallons of underground water resources.

9.2 Nanoparticle techniques

Nanoparticles (NPs) are currently a captivating field of study for nourishing soil fertility as part of Agro-nanotechnology and for plummeting the bioavailability of heavy metals (Shalaby et al., 2016); Nano-tools for soil remediation is cost-effective. NPs and green chemicals are used for the normal growth of agriculture and human well-being (Rai et al., 2018a). In addition, Rai P.K et al. (2019) stated that nano-sensors can be engaged in food safety assessments, especially in measuring pollution in agricultural produce (Kuswandi and others, 2017). Technologies for decreasing the risk of metal-permeated wastewater and sludge to food crops must be produced, as displayed in the example of pesticide formulation via various nano-technologies or formulations (Hazra et al., 2017). Upon adsorption, biochar nano sheets unusually condensed the bioavailability of carcinogenic metals in wheat production in contaminated soil near industrial establishments (Yousaf et al., 2018). In contrast, silica NPs stopped gene activity associated with the production of Cd transporters (OsHMA3) in rice, thus causing a rise in Cd toxicity (Cui et al., 2017). Therefore, a clear understanding of the outcome and opposed effects of NPs on the environment and food crops is required.

Metal pollution is caused by wastewater from small-scale textile and small-bleaching industries in the textile manufacturing region on the soil, canal, and aquatic environments. Regional water and soil resources have been contaminated severely, leading to cancer-causing effects on fruits and vegetables in the BD industrial region. Toxic vegetables like papaya, guava, and coconut consumed daily are causing gastrointestinal issues to economically backward people. An observation/study revealed that over half (55%) of the 25-45-year-olds in the industrial region, migrants, and its hinterland suffer from gastroenterology, GI disorders, ulcers, and heartburn. Necessary action is required with nanoparticle techniques and eco-planning of the region to save a million gallons of underground water resources and restore the ecology of the region.

WHO: World Health Organization?

FAO; Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations.

IS:10500: Indian standard no.10500

APHA: American Public Health Association, USA

Data availability:

a) The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Competing interest:

Financial or non–financial, the author states that he has no competing interest.

Author’s contribution:

RM and B.G. Gupta, the authors, contributed to collecting all the samples and designing or analyzing, and interpreting data in the research. RM has also been involved in drafting and editing the manuscript. BGG, the author has approved the version to be published. The authors are ensuring the accountability, accuracy, and integrity of the content of the manuscript.

Author’s information:

B. G. Gupta, Ph.D., Professor and Head of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Elitte College of Engineering, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad University of Technology.

Rishika Mukhopadhyay, Assistant Professor, Dept. of the Civil and Environmental Engineering, Elitte College of Engineering, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad University of Technology.

Acknowledgment:

B. G. Gupta, sincerely acknowledges the significant contribution of Mrs. R. Mukherjee, Assistant Professor, in guiding the data analysis, design, and drafting of the manuscript, helping in laboratory work at Ellite College of Engineering, MAKA University of Technology, Jayanta Kumar Biswas, Ph.D., Professor & HOD for using Laboratory Facilities of Ecological Engineering in Kalyani University, K. M Agrawal, Ph.D., IISWBM, Calcutta University, Professor, Environment Management for assisting in Survey Work and Jayanta Kumar Patra, Ph..D., Associate Professor, Research Institute of Integrative Life Sciences, Dongguk University, Republic of Korea for overall editing of the article and finally Professor Daniel B. Oerther, BCEE/S, DLAAS, FAAN Member’s occupation Executive Director AAEES | Chair Missouri Hazardous Waste Management Commission | Treasurer EWB-USA | Trustee CI for encouraging me to write the articles.

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SupplementaryMaterial1.docx

Metals Health Nexus: Research, Impact, Review, and Sustainable Remediation

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Abstract

Figures

Highlights

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results

4. Statistical study

5. Discussions

6. Health Risk Analysis

7. Health Status

8. Socio-economic Condition of the BD Industrial Region

9. Remedial Measure

10. Conclusion

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1