Socio-demographic characteristics
Majority of the respondents were males, 55(55%) in Lushoto and 58(58%) in Mbulu. Majority of the respondents were below 35 years of age followed by those of 36 and 45 years of age in Lushoto and Mbulu respectively. Most respondents in Lushoto (n = 71, 71%) and Mbulu (n = 83, 83%) had primary education. The proportion of respondents with secondary education was higher in Lushoto (24%) than Mbulu (14%). Only three (n=3) respondents across the study districts had college education. The remaining respondents, 3(3%) in Lushoto and 2(2%) in Mbulu had formal education. The results are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents from Lushoto and Mbulu district (each n=100)
Characteristic
|
Percentage of respondents in Lushoto district (%)
|
Percentage (%) of respondents in Mbulu district (%)
|
Male
|
55
|
58
|
Female
|
45
|
42
|
Age categories
|
|
|
Less than 35
|
41
|
20
|
36 to 45
|
25
|
52
|
46 to 55
|
21
|
18
|
More than 55
|
13
|
10
|
Education level
|
|
|
Formal
|
3
|
2
|
Primary
|
71
|
83
|
Secondary
|
24
|
14
|
College/University
|
2
|
1
|
Use of agricultural pesticides for control of crop pests
Majority of the respondents, 91% in Lushoto and 93% in Mbulu, reported using agricultural pesticides during the cropping season. The remaining respondents, 9% in Lushoto and 7% in Mbulu, reported not using any agricultural pesticides. The results are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2Percentage of Respondents using Agricultural Pesticides against Crop Pests
District
|
Question
|
Response
|
Percentage of respondents (%)
|
Lushoto
|
Do you use any pesticides during cropping?
|
Yes
|
91
|
|
|
No
|
9
|
Mbulu
|
Do you use any pesticides during cropping?
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
93
|
|
|
No
|
7
|
Commonly used agricultural pesticides
Fourteen (14) brands of pesticides were used against agricultural pests during the cropping season in Lushoto. These pesticides belong to five different classes: carbamates, pyrethroids, organophosphates, organochlorines and avermectins. The three most commonly used pesticides were master kinga72WP (mancozeb 640g/kg+cymoxanil 80g/kg) (44%), suracron720EC (profenos 500g/l EC) (25.3%) and Sumo 5EC (lambda-cyhalothrin) (18.7%). The results are summarized in Table 3.
Class of pesticide
|
Trade name
|
Active ingredient
|
Percentage of respondents (%)
|
Carbamates
|
Master kinga72WP
|
Mancozeb 640g/kg+Cymoxanil 80g/kg
|
44
|
Organophosphates
|
Suracron 720EC
|
Profenos 500g/l EC
|
25.3
|
Pyrethroids
|
Sumo 5EC
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
18.7
|
Organophoshates
|
Profecron 720 EC
|
Profenos 500g/l EC
|
15.4
|
Pyrethroids
|
Karate 5EC
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
15.4
|
Pyrethroids
|
Ninja plus 5%EC
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
14.3
|
Avermectins/neonicotinoids
|
Dudumectin
|
Emamectin 4.8% +acetameprid 6.4%
|
14.3
|
Carbamates
|
Farmerzeb 80WP
|
Mancozeb 80%WP
|
11
|
Carbamates
|
AMSAC
|
Indoxacarb 14.5%SC
|
7.6
|
Carbamates
|
Indofil M45
|
Mancozeb 80%
|
4.4
|
|
|
|
|
Pyrethroids
|
Kungfu
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
4.4
|
Organochlorines
|
DDT
|
|
3.3
|
Organophosphates
|
Wilcron
|
Profenos 720EC
|
3.3
|
Carbamates
|
Dithane M55
|
Mancozeb 80%
|
2.1
|
|
|
|
|
Table 3 Commonly used agricultural pesticides in Lushoto district (n = 91)
Seventeen (17) brands of pesticides were used during the cropping season in Mbulu. These pesticides belong to four (4) classes: pyrethroids, organophosphates, organochlorines and avermectins. The three most commonly used pesticides were Dursban50W (chlorpyrifos) (29%), Duduban 450EC (Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt) (18%) and Dursban+farmerzeb (Chlorpyrifos 48%, Mancozeb 80%WP). The results are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4: Commonly used agricultural pesticides against crop pests in Mbulu district (n = 93)
Class of pesticide
|
Trade name
|
Active ingredient
|
Percentage of respondents (%)
|
Organophosphates
|
Dursban
|
Chlorpyrifos48%
|
29
|
Pyrethroids/ organophosphates
|
Duduban
|
Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt
|
18
|
Organophosphates/Carbamates
|
Dursban, farmerzeb
|
Chlorpyrifos48%, Mancozeb 80%WP
|
9
|
|
No pesticide use
|
|
9
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates
|
Duduban, ninja
|
Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt
|
8
|
Carbamates
|
Farmerzeb
|
Mancozeb 80%WP
|
6
|
Pyrethroids
|
Ninja plus
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin 50g/lt
|
5
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates
|
Duduban, dursban
|
Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt, Chlorpyrifos 48%
|
2
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates/Carbamates
|
Duduban, farmerzeb
|
Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt, Mancozeb 80%WP
|
2
|
Pyrethroids/organophosphates
|
Karate, dursban
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin, Chlorpyrifos 48%
|
2
|
Avermectins/neonicotinoids
|
Dudumectin
|
Emamectin 4.8%+ acetameprid 6.4%
|
1
|
Organophosphates/Pyrethroids
|
Dursban, karate
|
Chlorpyrifos48%, Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
1
|
Carbamates/ Organophosphates
|
Farmerzeb, duduban dursban
|
Mancozeb80%WP,cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt, Chlorpyrifos48%
|
1
|
Carbamates/Pyrethroids
|
Farmerzeb, ninja
|
Mancozeb 80%WP, Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
1
|
Pyrethroids
|
Karate
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
1
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates
|
Karate, duduban
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos 35g/lt
|
1
|
Pyrethroids
|
Karate, ninja
|
Lambda-cyhalothrin
|
1
|
Carbamates
|
Thionix
|
Zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate 98.2%
|
1
|
Commonly used veterinary pesticides against livestock pests
Three veterinary pesticides, all of which are pyrethroids, were used for control of livestock pests in Lushoto. Of these, Cybadip (Cypermethrin) was the most commonly used (45%) followed by paranex (alphacypermethrin) (15%) and tick-tick (permethrin) (10%) (Figure 2). These pesticides were mainly used on goats and cattle for control of ticks. In Mbulu district, five (5) veterinary pesticides were used against livestock pests. Of these, cybadip was by far the most commonly used (cypermethrin) (83%) followed by paranex (alphacypermethrin) (13%) (Figure 3).
Commonly used pesticides against fleas
In Lushoto and Mbulu district, the three commonly pesticides used against fleas belong to two main classes: pyrethroids and carbamates (Table 5). Small portable hand sprayers were used to spray pesticides to infested animals or on the floor. The animals, mainly calves and goats, were only sprayed on body parts preferred by the fleas. The powder formulation of carbamates was sprinkled inside living houses with hands. The targeted control of fleas is so much restricted to certain parts of the house and was often done during the dry season when the flea population is high. The same applied for Mbulu only that the problem of fleas seems to be relatively higher than in Lushoto district. Because of the cost of insecticides, most of the respondents reported to pour hot water inside their living houses as an alternative way of controlling fleas. The study also revealed that, most people in the study villages in Mbulu district are still keeping livestock (cattle, goats etc) inside their living houses. Table 5 summarizes the commonly used chemicals for flea control in Lushoto and Mbulu district.
Table 5 Commonly used pesticides against fleas in Mbulu and Lushoto district
District
|
Class of pesticide
|
Trade name
|
Active substance
|
Percentages of respondents (%)
|
Mbulu
|
Pyrethroids
|
Cybadip
|
Cypermethrin
|
42
|
|
No Pesticide use
|
|
16
|
Carbamates
|
Dudu dust
|
Carbaryl 75g/kg
|
14
|
Organophosphates
|
Dursban
|
Chlorpyrifos 48%
|
12
|
Pyrethroids
|
Paranex
|
Alphacypermethrin
|
8
|
Carbamates
|
Akheri powder
|
Carbaryl5%w/w+Lambdacyhalothrin 0.1%w/w
|
5
|
Pyrethroids
|
Cybadip, dudu dust
|
Cypermethrin, Carbaryl 75g/kg
|
1
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates
|
Cybadip
dursban
|
Cypermethrin, Chlorpyrifos 48%
|
1
|
Lushoto
|
Carbamates/Pyrethroids
|
Akheri powder
|
Carbaryl 15%w/w +Lambda cyhalothrin 0.1w/w
|
4
|
Pyrethroids
|
Paranex100EC
|
Alphacypermethrin
|
2
|
Pyrethroids/Organophosphates
|
Duduban
|
Cypermethrin 10g/lt+chloropyrifos35g/lt
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
Frequency of applying agricultural pesticides
The respondents from Lushoto district reported the highest application of pesticides per cropping season of three months, particularly on vegetables. Most of them (n=73; 80%) repeated pesticides application over thrice per cropping season. About 11% (n=10) and 6% (n=5) of the respondents applied pesticides once and twice per season respectively. The rest of the respondents (n=2; 3%) reported that they were not using pesticides at all. Similarly, respondents from Mbulu district reported high use of agricultural pesticides particularly on vegetables; and most of them were applying pesticides twice (n=39;42%) or over thrice (n=35;38%) per cropping season. About 8% (n=7) were applying pesticides only once per cropping season. The rest (n=11, 12%) were not using pesticides at all.
Misuse of agricultural pesticides in Lushoto and Mbulu district
Although, all respondents reported that extension officers and salespersons provided them with necessary information regarding the use of pesticides, most of them did not adhere to manufacturers recommendations; 49(53.4%) and 39(42%) of the respondents in Lushoto and Mbulu respectively applied more than twice the recommended doses. About 18(19.8%) of respondents in Lushoto and 25(27%) in Mbulu district (Figure 4), claimed to apply the recommended dose; however we doubted that because they were unable to substantiate. The rest were using far lower doses than recommended.
Indigenous Knowledge on the use of agricultural and veterinary pesticides in Lushoto and Mbulu district
Half of the respondents (n=50, 50%) from Lushoto were not aware of the effects of excessive use of pesticides to human. The rest (n=50, 50%) of the respondents responded that excessive use of pesticides would lead to cancers. The majority of respondents (n=70, 70%) from Mbulu were not aware of the effects of excessive use of pesticides to human. The rest of the respondents (n=30, 30%) were aware of the effects of excessive use of agricultural and veterinary pesticides.