Characteristics of included studies
Seventeen articles were included in this review. Study aim, context, methodology and relevant findings are summarised in table 1. Most studies (n=13) investigated the quality of referral from the healthcare providers’ perspective either through interviews or audit of health facility records [1, 8, 30-40]. Two studies explored women’s experiences of maternal and newborn referral [41, 42]. One study included both healthcare providers’ and women’s perspectives [43] whilst one South Sudanese study included perspectives of stakeholders from the local government sector, Faith-Based Organisations (FBOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and community religious leaders in addition to healthcare providers [44]. Common conditions that prompted referral included premature rupture of membranes, obstructed labour and postpartum complications, such as haemorrhage and fistula [8, 33, 39, 40, 42-45]. Outcomes in these studies are summarised in S2.
Table 1. Summary of the 17 Articles
Reference
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Country/Setting
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Aim
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Methods
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Sample
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Findings
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Abodunrin et al, 2010
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Nigeria (urban and rural communities in Ilorin, the capital of Kwara State)
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To assess factors that determine referral practices of Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs).
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Descriptive quantitative survey: pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire
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162 Registered TBAs, mean age= 46 years, 89.5% females, 71.6% married, 92% Islam, 64.2% had at least primary school education, 85.8% were part-time TBAs
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- Identified timely and appropriate referrals among TBAs with more than one re-training (69.2%) and TBAs who have ever been visited by a supervisor (45%). Timely and appropriate referral was explained as referring women with high-risk pregnancies such as previous stillbirths, bleeding in previous or current pregnancies, multiple pregnancies, abnormal lie and not interfering with them. It also comprised immediate referral of women who had complications during labour management, such as bleeding during labour, prolonged labour, tiredness or loss of strength, seizures and retained placenta.
- Inappropriate referral comprised three conditions: delayed referral irrespective of the reason, wrong referral and non-referral. Delayed referral was defined as "not referring immediately any identified high-risk pregnancy and complicated labour."
- Wrong referrals were those to any place other than a modern health facility.
- A significant relationship was found between initial source of skills acquisition, re-training, supervision and prompt/appropriate referral of high-risk pregnancies.
- Young and unmarried TBAs with higher education had a higher tendency of appropriate and timely referral.
- Most TBAs who started through inheritance usually refer late or not.
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Afari et al, 2014
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Ghana (4 health posts, 6 health centres and one district hospital in the Assin North Municipality)
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To describe whether healthcare workers (HCW) identified systemic challenges and the significance of local engagement in developing strategies to enhance emergency maternity referral related processes.
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Qualitative study: semi-structured interviews
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18 HCWs (1 doctor, 2 emergency room nurses, 3 medical assistants, 4 community health
officers, 8 midwives)
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- Gaps in existing referral protocols-signal function recognition for referral, stabilising patients, initiating referrals, transportation arrangement for referral:
“Sometimes they hire commercial vehicles and sometimes too they use the motorbike. If there is no commercial vehicle at the station, they will beg someone to use their motorbike to convey them to the nearest health center or hospital, and then maybe somebody’s private car. The person might sacrifice.” CHO, Health Post
- Few facilities adhered to national referral protocols. Poor referral documentation and lack of communication between sending and receiving facilities were reported, although national referral protocols existed:
“Apart from that [one] guy (HCW) who calls, the others don’t call so you’ll be here and such a case comes in. And […] with no…nobody accompanying… it’s really a challenge. Because if you know […] somebody is coming with eclampsia… you know you’re supposed to prepare first so that you receive [appropriately].” Emergency Nurse, District Hospital
“Somebody who is fitting (or convulsing), a pregnant woman who is fitting… somebody (HCW) needs to accompany. But this is someone who is coming with relatives. They don’t know they have to turn the head to the side, [or] the person can aspirate saliva and any other thing[s].” Nurse, District Hospital
- HCWs recommendations: standardising implementation of the referral protocol, enhancing transportation, ensuring dependable data reporting and management systems, actively engagement of community and offering continuous training for health staff.
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Akaba & Ekele, 2018
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Nigeria (from either a primary, secondary, tertiary or private health facility to University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada)
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To determine maternal and fetal outcomes of emergency maternal referrals and reasons for these referrals.
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Prospective longitudinal study-November 2015 to March 2016, data from case-notes, cross-checked with referral documentation when available.
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All women requiring EmONC and referred from primary, secondary, tertiary or private health facility to University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, aged between 20 to 44.
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- Nine cases (7.3%) were transported by ambulance.
- There was 8.9% emergency referral fatality rate (11 maternal deaths/123 maternal referrals).
- 7/11 maternal deaths occurred among women referred from secondary health facilities.
- Poor emergency maternity referrals and fetal outcomes were reported: 14 (11.5%) fresh stillbirths and six (4.9%) macerated stillbirths) due to late presentation.
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Awoonor-Williams et al, 2015
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Ghana (Upper East Region)
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Maternity referral audit to strengthen the referral system for pregnant women and newborns in northern Ghana.
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Quantitative, two-cycle prospective audit in early 2011and late 2011; questionnaire, 32 facilities in all-16 facilities, 12 health centres, 3 district and 1 regional hospital
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223 referred women and their newborns (223 in each of the two cycles)
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- Observed enhanced referral facilitative mechanisms-increased use of ambulances/vehicles for referrals (48% to 63%); higher usage of referral forms (66% to 77%); alerting receiving facilities through phone calls (38% to 65%); increment in feedback from receiving facilities (58% to 70%); all 6 women referred twice in the 2nd cycle were accompanied by health staff.
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Carnahan et al, 2016
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Tanzania (14 government facilities providing maternal health care, urban Dar es Salaam.
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To investigate healthcare providers regarding prevention and management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH).
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Quantitative cross-sectional survey, questionnaire
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102/115 (88.7%) nurses with midwifery training, 9 (7.8%) nurses without midwifery training, 4(3.5%) doctors/medical/ clinical officers from 10 dispensaries (60.9%), 2 hospitals (18.3%), 1 health centres (20.9%).
104/115 (90.4%) females, 71 (62.8%) with more than 6-year experience.
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- All 14 facilities had referred 42.6% of women within the past three months.
- Forty-nine (42.6%) providers had referred at least one woman in the three months preceding the survey.
- 67.8% of 115 providers indicated consultation and referral communication systems are in place.
- 65.2% of 115 providers reported establishment of maternal referral transport system.
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Elmusharaf et al, 2017
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South Sudan (Renk County, Upper Nile State)
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To ascertain patterns and contributory factors of pregnant women's pathways from the onset of labour or complications until arriving in suitable health facilities.
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Qualitative, Critical Incident Technique (CIT), Stakeholder Interviews.
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28 key informants (2 from local government, 4 from county health department, 14 healthcare providers, 2 NGO employees, 3 Faith-Based Organisation (FBO) employees, 3 community religious leaders).
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- Identified four referral pathways-late referral, zigzagging referral, multiple referrals and bypassing non-functioning facilities.
- Women who directly went to appropriate health facilities and by-passed non-functioning facilities survived.
- Competencies of healthcare providers and functionality of the initial point of care determined the pathway to further care.
- Trained midwives were found to be competent but TBAs were not.
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Goodman et al, 2017
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Ghana (Ridge Regional Hospital (RRH), Accra)
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To describe maternal referrals received in Ridge Regional Hospital (RRH) and explore the timeliness with which women enter CEmOC.
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10-week prospective cohort time-sequence information at arrival and from records and logbooks period from 9-9-2012 to 11-11-2012.
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1,082 women with pregnancy complications, 15-46 years, 0-8 parity, 24-49 weeks gestation age.
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- Long waiting time upon arriving in receiving facility-40 minutes on average.
- The most distant referral facilities were 50 km from RRH.
- Gaps were identified in how maternal vital signs and labour assessments were recorded with 25 of 90 referrals found to be inappropriate. The most common reason for referral was for fetal-pelvic disproportion, however, fundal height was less than 40 cm, which does not support this diagnosis.
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Kyei-Onanjiri et al, 2018
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Ghana (120 health facilities across Upper East region)
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To investigate the availability of emergency maternal care interventions in Upper East region.
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Quantitative cross-sectional survey, questionnaire.
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120 health facilities (9 public and private hospitals, 17 clinics, 41 health centres, 52 Community-based Health Planning and Service
s (CHPS) centres, 1 maternity home).
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- 94% health facilities were having standardised or printed referral forms for maternal referrals.
- 83% had a standard maternal referral procedure.
- 64% had shortwave radio/telephone for referral communication.
- 56% of facilities without shortwave radio/telephone could not access one within minutes in instances where it is needed.
- Most facilities always had a trained health provider.
- 73% had a midwife or doctor either on call or present at all times.
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Mirkuzie et al, 2016
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Ethiopia (10 public health centres with similar staff profile and providing EmONC, Addis Ababa)
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To assess the proportion of maternal referrals resulting from premature rupture of membranes and investigate its correctness and management in Health centres.
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Sequential explanatory mixed methods, routine retrospective data from birth and intrapartum referral logbooks and interviews, focused interview guide.
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2,820 women with maternal complications; 10 senior midwives
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- All HC with high referral rates had many SBAs per caseload.
- 77.8% of the referred women had a spontaneous labour could have been wrongly referred because they were not in labour when they were referred.
- Some health centres observed women for about 8 hours before referral initiation:
“… when we get mothers saying that their water has broken, after we evaluate them, they will be admitted to our health center and observed for about eight hours. If there is no spontaneous labour in eight hours we refer them to hospital after giving them a loading dose of Ampicillin… in the referral slip we write how long the mothers had been observed in our health center.” (An informant from HC I).
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Mselle & Kohi, 2016
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Tanzania (Comprehensive Community Based Rehabilitation, a private, non-governmental organisation in Dar es Salaam)
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To use women’s narratives to demonstrate the challenges leading to failure in accessing adequate maternal care in a timely manner
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Qualitative, narrative research, semi-structured interview guide
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16 women with obstetric fistula, aged between19 and 43 years, 82% rural dwellers, all unemployed, 88% had no or primary education
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- Delay in making referral decision was reported:
“… it took 4 days at the village health facility, I could not give birth and then I was referred to the big hospital” (Divorced, aged 29, Kibakwe, Dodoma).
“…In the health facility, I spend the night until morning … I had pains, the day passed, I slept again until morning again, and it was when a decision was made to transfer me to another hospital. They said it was because I had urine retention. On the third day is when I was transported to a big hospital” (Divorced, aged 20, Mlandizi-Pwani).
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Nuamah et al, 2016
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Ghana (Antenatal clinics, Amansie West District in the Ashanti region)
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To evaluate the role of socio-economic factors, perception and transport availability in fulfilling maternity referrals
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Quantitative cross-sectional study, questionnaire
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720 confirmed pregnant women from 5 sub-districts, 65.5% cohabitating, 28.8% married, 49.6% JHS/Middle School, 17% No formal education
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- >90% reported meeting staff in the receiving facility always.
- 76.6% disclosed that health staff in the receiving facility solved their problems.
- Most women were referred once and were not referred further.
- Commercial cars (88.2%) are more often used for referral than ambulances (6.6%).
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Nwameme et al, 2014
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Ghana (ante-natal care (ANC) clinics in Ga East district, Greater Accra region)
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To examines the situation faced by women when they need emergency maternity care
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Mixed Method, Questionnaire, In-depth Interview guide, Referral and facility review checklist
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390 women attending ANC antenatal care clinic attendees and in-depth interviews with principal health care personnel, 17-46 aged women, 92% married, 44.6% Unorthodox Christians, 35.6% Orthodox Christians, 52.1% Junior High School, 12.8% no education, 76.2% traders, 43.6% parity 1, 29.7% parity 2
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- Out of 17 women referred in their current pregnancies, none of them was sent by Ambulance, ten had public transport whilst seven made their own transport arrangement.
- Of the 17, fourteen got to the referral centre within 24 hours, two within 48 hours and one woman got there after 10 days.
- 15 had referral letters, but only 1 was accompanied by staff.
- Only one hospital had information computerized for easy access.
- Referring health facilities hardly received feedback:
‘‘We don’t receive any feedback from the hospitals. At least it would help us understand what we could have done better.’’ (In-depth Interview, Medical Officer)
- During maternity emergencies, they contact referral centres by mobile phone to find out if beds are available:
“There are hindrances between the two hospitals, no beds, no doctors…all these contribute to the delays.” (In-depth Interview, Nursing Administrator).
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Okafor et al, 2015
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Nigeria (Semino Hospital and Maternity (SHM), Enugu State)
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To audit childbirth emergency referrals by trained TBAs
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Quantitative, retrospective, case records retrieved and data extracted with case record forms
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205 women with childbirth emergencies, 41.5% rural dwellers, 58.5% urban dwellers, 90.2% married, 58.5% unemployed, 56.1% nullipara
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- 155 (75.6%) of the women were delayed for more than 12 hours before referral.
- 75.6% (155/205) arrived walking unsupported prior to admission whilst 24.4% (50/205) could not walk on admission.
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Shimoda et al, 2015
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Tanzania (urban, one regional referral hospital and one health centre in Dar es Salaam city)
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To describe how midwives monitor and manage childbirth in order to achieve early consulting and timely referral to obstetricians
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Qualitative, semi-structured interviews
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11 midwives, 12.5 average year experience, 6 in the regional referral hospital, 5 in the health centre during the day, 4 with certificate, 4 with diploma, 2 with bachelor's degree, 1 with master's degree, 30-80 daily average births for their wards.
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- Intrapartum management and monitoring/examination to arrive at referral decision consisted of 3 phases: 1) initial encountering, 2) monitoring, and 3) acting that finally resulted in referral.
- Prompt referral upon identifying signal function beyond the facility's capacity:
“When she put in the catheter, we saw some blood starting to pass. That is the sign of obstructed labor. That’s why I decided to refer immediately.” (F)
- In instances where mother and fetus conditions are worsening, midwives decide earlier without taking time to confirm labour.
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Strand et al, 2009
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Angola (3 peripheral birth units-Cazenga, Palanca and Sambizanga)
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To assess the efficacy of the newly established network of peripheral birth units and their linkage to hospitals.
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Two-phase quantitative survey, review of maternal records
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157 referred women for 1st and 92 for 2nd phase, 24.1 mean age, 36% <20 years, 43% primiparae, 32% ≥4 previous births in 1st phase
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- 157 deaths (17.8% case fatality rate) occurred among traced referrals in the first phase, no maternal death in the second phase.
- Redacted proportion of referred women who were left without medical evaluation/treatment observed from the women's records (45% in the first phase of the study to 27% in the second phase (p=0.007).
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Tayler‐Smith et al, 2013
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Burundi (rural district, Kabezi)
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To describe Medecins sans Frontieres’ communication and ambulance service, examine relationship between referral time and adverse outcome, explore effect of referral service on coverage of complications and caesarean sections.
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Cross-sectional study, retrospective analysis
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1,478 ambulance call-outs/referrals.
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- Median referral time (time between call-out to the ambulance returning with the patient at CURGO) was 78 min.
- One maternal death occurred among referred women but it was not possible to evaluate the linkage between death and referral time.
- 3-hour referral duration or higher was associated with increased risk of early neonatal mortality-15% as compared with 9%
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Windsma et al, 2017
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Ethiopia (20 health centres in the Eastern Gurage Zone)
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To assess BEmONC, knowledge of high-risk pregnancies and referral capacity in health centres
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Cross-sectional survey
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37 healthcare providers (18 heads of health centres, 14 midwives, 3 nurses, 1 health officer, 1 other), 45 months average of experience among heads with 27.5 median age, median age of 24 years for others with 24 months average experience.
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- Most staff used their own mobile phones for referral correspondence-only 5 facilities (26.3%) had a working landline and 1 (5.3%) facility had a mobile phone.
- There were 5 ambulances for the Eastern Gurage Zone population: Two stationed in health centres and 3 in District Health Offices.
- Distance to the referral Butajira General Hospital used by all health centres was 16.5 km on average.
- There is a need to train staff of the health centres in the identification of signal functions and BEmONC.
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Provision of maternity referral
All 17 studies reported on various aspects of maternal and newborn referral and are presented under the sub-themes as outlined by the supply side of the framework for assessing the quality of maternal referral.
Referral system
Two studies indicated use of standard maternal and newborn referral procedures, availability of standardised referral forms and health provider escorts [1, 34]. Awoonor-Williams & Bailey [1] indicated that such procedures were accompanied by telephoning ahead to prompt the receiving hospital.
In that study in 16 facilities in Ghana, healthcare providers escorted all referred women and their newborns from health centres by ambulance to BEmOC and CEmOC facilities [1]. In two other studies in Ghana, health care providers rarely escorted women [38, 43]. Some referrals were unaccompanied because these were not emergencies [43]. Unaccompanied women sometimes arrived late [43].
Elmusharaf et al [44] identified four referral pathways (Table 1) [44]. One woman narrated her zigzag referral:
Family members lifted the pregnant woman onto a donkey-driven cart and went to the village’s medical assistant. When they arrived, her water broke. The medical assistant prescribed drugs and told them that she was in labour and that the midwife should deliver her straight away. He sent them back to the midwife for birth. After spending three hours with the midwife without progress, the pregnant woman was exhausted. The midwife advised them to go back to the medical assistant. They spent most of the night going back and forth between a midwife and a medical assistant until the midwife insisted on the medical assistant referring them to hospital (5JMD) [44].
In a study from Angola delays of up to 13.7 hours were noted in the triage of referred women upon arrival in the receiving facility [35]. Referred women and their newborns were simply added to the queue with other patients. When healthcare providers were alerted about this issue, a meeting was held to identify referred women and prioritise them upon arrival. After this strategy was implemented, they spent an average of nine minutes to meet a midwife and 71 minutes to be assessed by a doctor.
In Ghana, triage initiation for women in labour was found to vary by shift or timing of the day in one hospital [33]. Average waiting time in the morning was 35 minutes, 28 minutes in the evening and 55 minutes in the night. For a woman in the first stage of labour, it took an average of 35 minutes for triage to take place and 24 minutes after this for her to be admitted to the labour ward. Those in the second stage were evaluated within 30 minutes and moved to the labour ward within 10 minutes [33].
In Burundi, a 15% higher chance of neonatal deaths was observed for women who took ≥3 hours to arrive in the next facility. Facilities had to call for an ambulance from another facility which delayed in some instances [36]. In the absence of ambulances, donkey-driven carts, tractors, pick-up trucks, public transport (taxis and lorries), motorised tricycles and motorbikes were used [41, 30, 34, 37, 38, 43].
Some health facilities were not equipped with telephones and some healthcare providers from primary health centres in southern Ethiopia had to use their personal phones to notify receiving facilities about referrals [37]. A communication system for facilitating referrals in 14 government health facilities in Tanzania was reported without details [32].
Referring health facilities are not always given feedback so that opportunities for improvement did not reach these [38, 43]. High workload of health care workers was cited as the main reason why feedback was not given. A Medical Officer from Ghana reported:
‘‘We don’t receive any feedback from the hospitals. At least it would help us understand what we could have done better.’’ (In-depth Interview, Medical Officer) [43].
However, in one study, feedback on referral was given verbally by the women or their families [1].
International standards for the management of maternity emergencies
Nwameme & Phillips [43] indicated that more than 75% of staff from two of three facilities were trained how to use national referral guidelines. Two of the three studies reporting availability of national referral guidelines in Ghana indicated adherence in health facilities [1, 43]. Adherence includes documentation of referral indication, telephoning the referral facility ahead of time and arranging transportation, preferably by ambulance. In a survey of 120 health facilities in Ghana, 94% of the facilities had standard referral forms and 83% followed a standard referral procedure [34].
In Tanzania, guidelines for midwifery care were used in the studied hospital and health centre to manage intrapartum monitoring leading to emergency referrals of 11 women with prolonged labour [39]. Unlike WHO guidelines and recommendations, the national guidelines of Ghana do not mention that uterotonics should be applied to reduce haemorrhage [11, 16].
Human resources for health
A variety of providers were involved in maternity referrals, but few details were available regarding their experience and training [1, 41, 31, 32, 34, 37-39, 43, 47]. Three papers reported that midwives and nurses had between two and 12.5 years of experience [37, 39] and doctors and nurses with midwifery training had at least 6 years [32].
In 14 government health facilities in Tanzania, 17% of 115 health care providers could correctly diagnose post-partum haemorrhage (blood loss ≥500 ml, or blood loss of 500 ml with shock symptoms) [32]. Almost all healthcare providers (98.3%) knew that misoprostol can be used for post-partum haemorrhage (PPH), but only 62.6% was able to state the recommended dose (600 μg) and 36.5% were able to prescribe it, because it was not always available [32]. No significant differences were found in the mean scores of PPH-related knowledge between providers who had > six years of experience or less.
The 268/350 (76.6%) women who were referred to a higher level facility in Ghana reported that healthcare providers were competent enough to solve their problems [41]. In Kwara State in Nigeria, 128 (79.0%) Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) indicated that they did not refer in a timely manner [31]. These were untrained TBAs who acquired their skills through self-initiation or inheritance. Nine of the twenty TBAs who had at least one supervisory visit by a qualified provider were able to conduct appropriate referral. In addition, nine out of the thirteen TBAs who had attended >1 training course, referred women with complications appropriately [31].
Okafor, Arinze‑Onyia [8] also reported that trained TBAs in Nigeria delayed referral for women with signs of difficulty in childbirth for >12 hours [8]. A senior manager in a Reproductive Health and Midwifery Department in South Sudan complained about their competencies:
In the past, TBAs have arrived in Renk hospital with pregnant women with their babies partly delivered; parts of the foetus, such as the head, the arm or the leg, outside the woman's body and the rest of the body still inside. (Senior Manager) [44].
Poor skills of lower level doctors and midwives were reported in Ghana:
“Last time a pregnant woman came here…. And I was saying but there is a doctor at your place, so why did you rush here without a midwife accompanying you, and she said ‘Auntie, I had been admitted there for a long time. And each time the doctor came, he said let's wait a bit more, and I was experiencing a lot of discomfort, and insisted that they discharge me, so they finally reluctantly discharged me.' And when she arrived here, true, it was twins. But one was IUFD (macerated) already. So she was able to get the first twin alive. (Midwife, District Hospital).
Health professionals noted the need for ongoing professional development. One midwife said:
“They (staff in the district hospital) need refresher courses... They should allow them to go to workshops so that they will see what is going on…. Me, I always learn from my junior nurses and midwives because I joined it [midwifery] about 10 years ago, and things are changing. Even the instrument[s] we are using [are] changing.” (Midwife, Health Centre) [38].
Maternity information systems
Some health facilities in Ghana routinely used logbooks, care plans, referral letters and forms or slips correctly as required by the national referral guidelines [16]. Poor referral documentation was reported in Ghana where only six out of 11 sampled health facilities had referral registers and details concerning indications and treatment, while current status and treatment in the receiving facility were lacking and only one EmONC facility had a computerised referral information system [38, 43].
Medicines and equipment
In the seventeen studies, four included information concerning medicines and equipment such as misoprostol [1, 33, 40, 46]. A decline in correct partograph use was reported in Ghana [1]. Audit in peripheral health facilities in Angola revealed poor quality of partographs without further detail [35]. In Tanzania, midwives correctly used catheters to enhance referral decision making.
Experience of referral care
No article provided insights into cognition and emotional support during referral. In Tanzania, some women in a primary health facility indicated that doctors were not readily available to check progress and refer to EmOC facilities, if necessary [42]. One woman narrated her story:
“When we got to the dispensary nurses told me to wait. At 8 pm labour pains became intense, I started pushing but the baby could not come out, and the doctor was not around. Next day I continued pushing the whole day again until at around 8 pm when the doctor came…” (Divorced, aged 33, Mbori Dodoma), [42].
Just over 10 percent (N= 390) of women in three health facilities in Accra Ghana indicated that poor attitudes of nurses were a source constraint to referral [43]. In that study 180/390 women (46.2%) complained about costs while three reported previous bad experiences as sources of dissatisfaction and constraints to referrals without further details [43].
Socio-cultural factors affecting women’s adherence to referral
While the framework did not include socio-cultural factors, these were identified as having an effect on women's referral for care. In Ghana socio-cultural beliefs relating to fear of blood transfusion and fear of death in higher level facilities affected women’s desire to travel to next level facilities [37]. In a CEmOC health facility in Ghana, 720 (57%) women had to consult their husbands for permission to follow health professionals’ advice [41]. For some women in rural Tanzania with obstetric fistula, the decision to travel to the next facility was made by their uncles, grandmothers, husbands and mothers-in-law [42].