This study provides preliminary insights into the frequency of posts featuring food products/brands, the most featured food categories, the healthfulness of products, and the marketing techniques most often used by SMIs popular with adolescents, while considering gender. The results highlight differences in posts among SMIs popular with males and females, including the frequency of posts containing food products/brands and the variance of marketing techniques, as well as the proportion of energy drinks and unhealthy food products being shared by SMIs popular with males.
Frequency, food categories, and healthfulness
Adolescents are heavily exposed to food marketing on various mediums (35). SMIs are burgeoning in popularity among adolescents and have an influence on adolescents’ dietary patterns (19). In this study, SMIs popular with males posted one food product/brand for every 2.5 posts, whereas those popular with females posted one food product/brand for every 6 posts. Further, most food products promoted by both SMI groups were unhealthy. Differences amongst SMI groups were noted, with SMI popular with females featuring 54% of food products as less healthy or "of concern from an advertising perspective", compared to 89% for SMI popular with males (32). These results hold significance, considering research highlights that boys have an increased susceptibility to the influence of food marketing compared to girls (26). The notable prevalence of unhealthy food content and increased instances of food marketing by social media influencers popular among males may indicate a troubling trend in heightened exposure to unhealthy food products for boys, potentially leading to adverse short- and long-term health consequences (2).
We also observed that SMIs popular with a certain sex posted their content to platforms predominantly used by individuals of the same sex/gender. For instance, SMIs popular with males predominantly created content on YouTube, aligning with trends that a higher proportion of boys use YouTube compared to girls (36). Trends and patterns have been observed for platform preferences between boys and girls (37). Boys are more drawn to YouTube content, particularly gaming videos, sports highlights, or technology-related videos. TikTok focuses on visual and short-form content, which appeals to girls, as they tend to enjoy sharing photos, videos, fashion, beauty, and creative content (38). A SMIs choice in platform selection could reflect an awareness of demographic preferences, suggesting they are intentional in reaching certain audiences. Food companies may also capitalize on this awareness, selecting specific SMIs who are on certain platforms to promote their products. The relationship between the popularity of a SMI, their platform choice, and the demographic composition of platform use emphasizes the importance of considering platform-specific dynamics in influencer marketing strategies.
In the contemporary landscape of social media, the promotion of food products by SMIs can shape consumer perceptions, preferences, and behaviors. For both SMI groups, restaurants, including fast food, were among the top three most featured food products. It is not surprising that restaurants, including fast-food, were common among both SMI groups. These findings align with other research that highlights the frequency of fast-food marketing in digital media and traditional media (12, 19, 35).
For SMIs popular with males, the most featured products were energy drinks, restaurants, and snacks. While this study did not investigate exposure, this suggests that boys may be exposed to energy drink marketing more frequently than girls. Other research has noted how male adolescents reported greater exposure to online energy drink marketing compared to their female counterparts (39). There is a widespread prevalence of energy drink marketing, particularly on social media and livestreaming platforms like Twitch, Facebook gaming, and YouTube, platforms that are more favored by boys than girls (37, 39). Energy drink marketing is presently directed primarily towards boys, and this approach appears to be effective, as reflected by higher levels of energy drink consumption among boys compared to girls (39–41).
Marketing Techniques
A variety of marketing techniques were used by each SMI group. The most common across all platforms and amongst both groups were displaying the product using a positive or neutral context and the product being consumed. These techniques are not surprising, given the nature and intent of marketing. The ubiquity of food products/brands presented in a positive or neutral context found in our results aligns with other literature (19, 42). These results are noteworthy, as positive presentations of unhealthy food by SMI can translate into a positive view of these foods and brands by adolescents, leading to unhealthy dietary patterns (43).
There were differences between the techniques more commonly featured by SMIs popular with males versus females. The use of songs or music, the use of other influencers, appealing to fun or cool, viral marketing, appeals to beauty, and the presence of teens were marketing techniques more commonly used by SMIs popular with females, whereas SMIs popular with males more commonly featured calls-to-action (prompts for additional actions beyond the initial advertisement (44)), and price promotions. Creating techniques that appeal to an intended audience can include the use of gender stereotypes and norms (25). Recent research has found that a small sample (n = 139) of boys and girls aged 12 to 16 were exposed to statistically different marketing techniques based on their gender, suggesting targeted marketing (25). The public health impact of targeted marketing is significant, as it can create health disparities (45).
Traditional gender roles and societal expectations can shape preferences and interests, resulting in SMIs using these as marketing techniques. It is no surprise that appeals to beauty were only present among SMIs popular with females and not males. Influencers will tailor their content to align with the interests of their target audiences and adapt their techniques to the platform preferences of those audiences (46). For example, the use of music and beauty appeals is more commonly found on TikTok, a platform more popular with girls, while calls to action are emphasized more on YouTube, which is favoured by boys (36). Understanding the content and marketing messages endorsed by SMIs can provide insights into the interplay between influencers and audiences, supporting the discovery of more gendered nuances of social marketing.
Power of SMIs
The influence of SMIs on consumer behavior has become a subject of growing interest. SMIs represent a unique and dynamic marketing technique in themselves, serving as relatable and influential figures who engage with audiences on a personal level (47). SMIs perceived authenticity and direct connection with followers distinguish them from traditional advertising methods. Social media platforms have provided influencers with unprecedented reach and access to diverse audiences, enabling them to impact consumer choices and preferences (20).
A recent qualitative study that explored how adolescents engage with unhealthy food marketing in online settings found the most frequently mentioned marketing technique was the use of a SMI (24). Nearly all participants in the study reported following at least one influencer. Participants also expressed a strong inclination to purchase products endorsed by a SMI due to the trust they placed in them, which by extension, translated to a positive reaction to the promoted products (Amson et al., 2024). This observed trust aligns with several findings underscoring the significant influence SMIs wield over adolescents’ food preferences (20, 21, 48). This degree of trust is what links adolescent food choices, increased recall, and consumption of unhealthy foods, to SMI food promotion (21). Adolescents ate more unhealthy snacks and had a higher caloric intake after viewing videos of SMIs endorsing foods like cookies, candy, and chocolate (20). Furthermore, adolescents showed a preference for food posts when they belonged to a celebrity, influencer, or peer, opposed to posts from a food company (21). Given this, the food industry could be strategically leveraging SMIs as a marketing tool to promote their products, revealing a calculated approach in targeting specific populations, such as adolescents.
Gender roles and societal expectations can influence food choices (49). For instance, if male SMIs popular with males promote indulgence in unhealthy and high-calorie foods, their male followers may be more inclined to adopt these eating habits to conform to that SMI. Similarly, female influencers who endorse specific food choices have the potential to persuade females, potentially shaping the consumption behaviors of their female followers. An interesting observation from a small sample study revealed that female audiences engaged with both female and male influencers, while males predominantly followed only male influencers (24). If this observed trend is generalizable, it suggests that females might be exposed to a more diverse range of marketing techniques and products compared to their male counterparts. This nuanced relationship between gender, SMIs, and food choices is a complex interaction of relatability, targeted marketing, and social norms. Recognizing these factors can help adolescents become more mindful media users, critically evaluating the content they encounter on social media platforms.
Implications
The landscape of food marketing has transformed, with SMIs becoming influential intermediaries between brands and consumers (47, 50). This shift is particularly significant when targeting adolescents, a demographic highly susceptible to marketing influences who are actively engaged in social media (7). In safeguarding adolescents against the multifaceted influences of social media, particularly exposures to SMIs, a three-pronged strategy including parental involvement, media literacy, and policy presents as an approach.
Parental involvement can be a protective factor for obesity prevention whereby they endorse and model healthy eating patterns, foster critical thinking about food marketing, and engage in open and informed discussions about food (51). Research initiatives from the USA and Jamaica emphasize the role of parent–child communication as a catalyst for obesity prevention (52). This is further reinforced by a small qualitative study that revealed the potential protective influence of parents on adolescents’ food choices. This notion was mostly cited by girls in the study (24).
Parental influence on attitudes toward food and healthy eating exhibit gender-based differences (51). Parents typically show greater concern for the diets and body weight of their daughters compared to their sons (53). Healthy eating is not as emphasized or discussed by men and consequently, they may be less aware of their dietary patterns and its consequences (53). Understanding how gender shapes adolescents' responses to food marketing, how SMIs may be targeting their child, and recognizing current food norms can guide parents in providing tailored support to their child's unique needs, fostering better evaluative skills in response to food marketing.
The second facet of this strategy involves bolstering media literacy, where the combination of family discussions, critical analysis of media messages, and educational components about media use collectively empower adolescents to assess and discern information (52). Educating adolescents about social media, particularly SMI marketing, is needed to enhance their ability to recognize these persuasive tactics (54). While media literacy programs have demonstrated effectiveness, several challenges exist, such as the absence of a standardized marketing literacy curriculum, difficulties integrating interventions into the school setting due to existing curricular constraints (55), and teachers requiring specific knowledge and skills to implement such a curriculum, necessitating their own refinement of marketing literacy (56). Nevertheless, more robust media literacy among adolescents can cultivate awareness and critical thinking about their social media exposures, with particular attention to gender nuances and the targeted efforts of food companies and SMIs based on gender stereotypes and norms.
Lastly, policies designed to monitor and restrict unhealthy marketing practices that effect adolescents is needed, as currently children are the focal point (10). Impactful policies need to consider restricting the persuasive power of food marketing, such as influencer and celebrity endorsements. Suggestions have been made to enforce advertising disclosures to support adolescents in recognizing sponsored content as advertising; however, the effectiveness of such disclosures has produced mixed results (57). Further, the absence of a coordinated international approach to influencer marketing regulation poses challenges, with variations in enforcement and guidelines across countries (58, 59). The diversity of disclosures poses challenges, considering the global reach of platforms and the potential for adolescents to follow influencers from different countries.
Moreover, developing comprehensive food marketing policies necessitates an understanding of gender dynamics. Gender analyses of food marketing content is important for evaluating gender-specific messaging and biases, guiding policies that discourage the perpetuation of gender portrayals in marketing, and for uncovering targeting patterns so that policies can be responsive to the emerging marketing trends impacting different gender groups. Recognizing adolescents' heightened susceptibility to marketing, regulations addressing gender dynamics in marketing strategies targeted at this demographic, including content restrictions based on nutrient profiling models, are essential (60). By integrating these policy considerations, an environment can be created that actively addresses the complex intersections between gender, dietary choices, and marketing influences. This approach reflects a commitment to fostering equity and promoting health-conscious decision-making in the realm of food marketing. Combing parental involvement, media literacy, and policy can contribute to synergistically creating a healthy social media environment for adolescents, mitigating the potential negative impacts of SMI exposures.
Strengths and Limitations
To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine social media posts across three platforms shared by SMIs popular with Canadian adolescents. It is important to highlight that while our study focused on SMIs popular with adolescents in Canada, many of these influencers are popular in other countries. This suggests that the potential impact and reach of marketing by these SMIs extends beyond national borders. Despite this, this study has several limitations. Actual exposure was not captured. Instead, this study captured the frequency or potential exposure to food marketing by examining posts of SMIs popular with males and females. It was also not feasible to code every YouTube video, and as such, a 50% sample was used and weighted frequencies were applied. This in turn only provides an estimate for the total number of posts containing food products and brands on YouTube and may not be reflective of the actual total. Additionally, our study may not be representative of all potential posts as the researchers reviewed posts dated from June 1, 2021, to May 31, 2022, but they were collected from October to December 2022. This allowed the potential for SMIs to delete posts that we cannot account for. Further, due to the popularity of one of the SMIs being prevalent with both males and females, statistical analyses could not be undertaken, as the samples were not independent. The SMIs included in this study are a small sample size with a disproportionate SMI sex representation (4 male SMIs and 1 female SMI), which could impact the generalizability of findings, as the limited female representation may not fully capture the diversity of influencer content targeted at girls. Additionally, the presence of Mr. Beast in both samples could skew the comparisons. Nevertheless, this study offers insights into what adolescents may be exposed to while viewing posts by their preferred SMI. By understanding how and how often influencers promote unhealthy food products/brands, we can gain a deeper understanding of the evolving social and cultural landscapes shaped by digital media. Future research could investigate how SMI content impacts the eating and purchasing behaviors of adolescent boys and girls.