Respondent Profiles
Sixty-five respondents were selected based on their extensive knowledge and active participation in cultural traditions and beliefs related to wildlife. Among them, 20 individuals (30.8%) took part in in-depth interviews (IDIs), while 45 individuals (69.2%) participated in eight focused group discussions (FGDs). The respondents were Thais or people from northern Thailand (19, 29.2%), Pwo Karen (18, 27.7%), Shan or Tai Yai (13, 20.0%), Chinese from Yunnan (3, 4.6%), Mien or Yao (3, 4.6%), Akha (3, 4.6%), Lahu or Muser (2, 3.1%), Lisu or Lisaw (2, 3.1%), S'gaw Karen (1, 1.5%), and Burmese (1, 1.5%). (Table 1)
Table 1
Number of respondents for in-depth interview (IDIs) and focus group discussion (FGDs).
| Provinces | Districts | Ethnic group | Respondents in IDIs | Respondents in FGDs | Total |
| Males | Females | Males | Females |
| Tak | Mae Sot | Thai | 5 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 14 |
| | | Burmese | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| | | Pwo Karen | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| | | Subtotal | 6 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 16 |
| Tak | Phop Phra | Akha | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 |
| | | Yunnan’s Chinese | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| | | Mien or Yao | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 |
| | | Thai | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 |
| | | Lahu or Muser | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 |
| | | Lisu or Lisaw | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 |
| | | Subtotal | 3 | 1 | 10 | 1 | 15 |
| Mae Hong Son | Muang | Shan or Tai Yai | 3 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 13 |
| | | Thai | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
| | | S’gaw Karen | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| | | Subtotal | 6 | 0 | 7 | 4 | 17 |
| Mae Hong Son | Sop Moei | Pwo Karen | 5 | 0 | 6 | 6 | 17 |
| | | Subtotal | 5 | 0 | 6 | 6 | 17 |
| | | Total (%) | 19 (29.2%) | 1 (1.5%) | 34 (52.3%) | 11 (16.9%) | 65 (100.0%) |
| | | Grand Total (%) | 20 (30.8%) | 45 (69.2%) | 65 (100.0%) |
Beliefs and Taboos about Wildlife
The results showed that individuals' beliefs and attitudes regarding wildlife could be influenced by their background and family upbringing, which are typically instilled and transmitted across generations by adults or older community members. Different ethnicities in the study areas have distinct wildlife taboos. The cultural practices, traditions, and spiritual beliefs of these ethnic groups often influence their wildlife conservation and consumption attitudes. (Table 2)
Table 2
Beliefs and taboos about wildlife among ethnicities in Take and Mae Hong Son provinces.
| Provinces | Districts | Ethnicities | Wildlife animals | Beliefs and Taboos |
| Tak | Mae Sot | Northern Thai | Snake | An omen of fortune, but some people considered it a bad omen and prohibited poaching due to potential intoxication |
| | | | Dove & Owl | An omen of death to the family |
| | | | Red-Wattled Lapwing | An omen of death |
| | | | Muntjac or Serow wandering in the village | An omen of possible tragedy |
| | | | Deer or Barking Deer | Prohibited from consumption due to high allergic |
| | | | Frog | Prohibited from poaching due to potential intoxication |
| | | Burmese | Muntjac or Serow wandering in the village | An omen of possible tragedy |
| | | | Ducks and Turtles | An omen of breaking companionships |
| | | Pwo Karen | Muntjac or Serow wandering in the village | An omen of misfortune or tragedy |
| | | | Duck and Turtle (Meat) | An omen of breaking companionships |
| | | | Goat | Prohibited to consume for people born in the Chinese year of Goat |
| | | | Killing any wildlife in the village | Bring evil spirits to the village |
| | Phop Phra | Akha | Snake entering household | Omen of misfortune. Caught the snake and removed using an unhusked rice bag. |
| | | | Bulky animals | Prohibited from slaughtering, an omen of evil spirits. |
| | | | Bull and Buffalo | Prohibited from slaughtering as they hold onto spirits |
| | | | Dog (dog meat) | Prohibited from consumption as it is an omen of misfortune |
| | | Yunnan's Chinese | Pangolin | Seeing Pangolin in a burrow is an omen of bad luck |
| | | | Muntjac or Serow wandering in the village | An omen of possible tragedy |
| | | | Rodent | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | Mien or Yao | Turtle | An omen of assistance to the Mien community also prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Wild animals wandering in the village | An omen of tragedy |
| | | | Rodent | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Dog (dog meat) | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Elephant | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | Northern Thai | Wild animals wandering in the village | An omen of tragedy |
| | | | Monitor Lizard and Snake | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Rodent | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Dog (dog meat) | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | Lahu or Muser | Wild animals wandering in the village | A sign of catastrophe |
| | | | Bull and Buffalo | Prohibited from slaughtering as they hold onto spirits. |
| | | | Elephant | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Turtle | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | | Rodent | Prohibited from being consumed |
| | | Lisu or Lisaw | Wild animals wandering in the village | An omen of misfortune and disaster |
| | | | Bull and Buffalo | Prohibited from slaughtering as they hold onto spirits. |
| | | | Rodent | Allowed to be consumed |
| Mae Hong Son | Muang | Shan or Tai Yai | Barking Deer and Monitoring Lizard entering in the households | An omen of misfortune |
| | | | Tiger (roaring tiger sound) | An omen of a pandemic or disaster. |
| | | | Peacock (feathers and tails) | An omen of fortune |
| | | | Owl (owl sound) | A symbolizes potential illness or accident |
| | | | Any wild animals | Those who feed on wild animals will gain prosperity |
| | | | Wild boar | Prohibited from being consumed because it diets on waste |
| | | | Moles | Prohibited from being consumed due to foul odor affecting vulnerable residents |
| | | | Barking Deer | Hunting is prohibited as it impacts the community |
| | | | Cobra | Allowed to be consumed but rarely |
| | | Northern Thai | Any wild animals entering the house | An omen of misfortune, villagers have House merit ceremonies to eliminate bad omens |
| | | | Snake | An omen of fortune |
| | | | Owl | A symbolizes potential illness or accident to the resident. |
| | | | Any wild animals | Those who feed on wild animals will gain prosperity |
| | | | Moles | Prohibited from being consumed due to foul odor affecting vulnerable residents |
| | | | Barking deer wandering in the village | An omen of bad luck to harm |
| | | | Cobra | Allowed to be consumed but rarely |
| | | | Wild Boar | Prohibited from being consumed because it diets on waste |
| | | S'gaw Karen | Peacock (feathers and tails) | An omen of fortune |
| | | | Barking Deer and Bear (meat) | Prohibited from being consumed by women in the perinatal period |
| | Sop Moei | Pow Karen | Muntjac | Allowed to be consumed |
| | | | Bear | Refrain from killing in the forest |
| | | | Python | Refrain from killing in the forest |
| | | | Wild animals wandering in villages | An omen of misfortune |
| | | | Snake entering the house | An omen of bad luck, but prohibited to kill |
| | | | Wild animals entering the house | Prohibited to kill |
| | | | Wild Boar and Barking Deer entering a household | An omen of potential calamity |
| | | | Snake and stillbirth phenomenon | If a pregnant woman notices a baby footprint on a snake's head, it believe to cause stillbirth |
| | | | Hornbill | Shooting a hornbill is believe to cause severe drought |
| | | | Pig | A pig is killed as an offering in ceremonies to receive forgiveness from ancestral spirits |
| | | | Wild animals like Bear, Wild Boars, and Barking Deer | Allowed to be hunted and consumed |
| | | | Bear (Bear meat) | Pregnant women should be prohibited from consuming bear meat to avoid complications in newborns. |
| | | | Gibbon | Prohibited to be consumed, people consuming gibbon meat must leave the village due to potential devastations. |
| | | | Chang Chi bird | A person believes to lose their spouse by consuming this bird |
| | | | Wild Boar (male) | Allow to be consumed, but prohibited from being consumed by women in the perinatal period due to toxins in their testicles |
| | | | Wild boar | Prohibited from being consumed by people with respiratory diseases |
| | | | Cobra | Prohibited from being consumed by people prone to health complications |
| | | | Barking deer | Prohibited from being consumed by people who have respiratory diseases and the prenatal conditions of vulnerable people. |
Beliefs related to Wild Animal Consumption
In Tak province, some northern Thais in the Mae Sot district believe that certain wildlife, such as wild deer and barking deer meat, was forbidden for children, women, pregnant women, and seniors. They believed consuming such meat would lead to body aches and pains, which were considered toxic for young mothers. The beliefs aligned with the prohibition on eating wild meat observed by the Pow Karen ethnic group in the Sop Moei district. They reported that women who had recently given birth were advised to avoid consuming wild deer and barking deer meat due to a musty and foul odor since the odor could hinder blood flow and result in joint aches and pains. In addition, Yunnan's Chinese, Mien, Muser, and Lahu ethnic groups have a similar ban on wildlife consumption in that they do not eat rodents (rats) because they are called "Pacha," which means dirty meat. In contrast, the Lisu and Thai ethnic groups used to eat rodents and are not forbidden to eat rodents or other wild animals. Most ethnic groups, particularly Mien, Muser, or Lahu, believe that turtles and elephants are forbidden to eat because they are long-lived animals. Consumption of monitor lizards or snakes was not widespread among Thais in the community.
Moreover, the Mien ethnic group in Prob Phra district believes that wild animals such as turtles, elephants, dogs, and rats are forbidden to eat. There was a strong belief that turtles were good animals that had helped the Mien ethnic group by bringing good luck and prosperity or even assisting the community during times of hardship or conflict. Likewise, Burmese and Pwo Karen respondents reported that it is forbidden for turtles and ducks to eat together unless they are family members, friends, or relatives because this will cause people to separate and live apart. In addition, Burmese and Pwo Karen reported prohibiting eating frogs or strange wild animals because they accumulate toxicity in the body, resulting in allergic reactions and blisters. Some Pwo Karen reported that people born in the Year of the Goat should abstain from eating goat meat because it is their birth year. Most northern Thai respondents reported being prohibited from eating poisonous wildlife like poisonous snakes. Although the beliefs of the northern Thais in the community do not have any specific beliefs about the consumption of wildlife, the community believes in the signs of wildlife affecting the way of life.
In Mae Hong Son province, some Pow Karen respondents reported that if someone eats gibbon meat, that person will have to leave the village because they believe that something unusual will happen. If someone eats a small bird (Chang Chi bird), that person will become a widow. Some Shan and Northern Thais shared similar beliefs about consuming moles within the household is forbidden. This belief is likely rooted in traditional taboos associated with certain animals, where they are considered off-limits for consumption for various reasons, such as cultural significance, potential health risks, or respect for the animal itself. Cobras were not explicitly prohibited; however, they were rarely consumed.
On the other hand, wild boars were not favored to eat when uncooked because they always consumed muddy and messy food. Likewise, in both Tak and Mae Hong Son, some Shan, Northern Thai, and Pow Karen reported that a pregnant person or a woman giving birth should not eat wild boar because they believe there is poison in the boar's testicles. Likewise, those with underlying medical conditions, especially asthma and lung disease, should not consume boars. Cobra is a wild animal that people with health problems rarely eat because it causes pain in the body. Some Shan, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen, and Pow Karen reported that barking deer should not be consumed, particularly by those with underlying conditions such as asthma or women who have recently given birth, as it can cause disability or death.
Beliefs Concerning the Killing of Wild Animals
In the Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces, some Shan, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen, and Pow Karen respondents shared a common belief that some wild animals should not be harmed or killed. For example, they avoid catching, shooting, or killing a barking deer when it wanders into their villages, as these activities might bring about trouble and disturbances in their communities. Similarly, they believe that slaughtering large wild animals like a bull or wild buffalo may lead to negative consequences, such as death, because these animals are believed to have ghost owners, which they or someone in other villages will die. Additionally, killing a hornbill is believed to lead to an equivalent number of deaths per hornbill. These beliefs indicate a belief in spiritual repercussions or karma associated with harming wild animals.
Shan and northern Thai people in the Muang district of Mae Hong Son are prohibited from killing wild animals that enter the community because it would bring misfortune to the community and may cause a negative impact. S'gaw Karen and Shan in the area consider hunting a way of life. Thus, forest officials enforce the law only under certain conditions. Gun hunters must be careful when hunting. If the officer finds them using the gun, they will be arrested, recorded, and released without prosecution.
Some Pwo Karen villagers in the Sop Moei district believe that shooting gibbons is forbidden. As reported, gibbons are abundant in the Tipho Win and Doi Pha Tang forests. The belief is that killing a gibbon will destroy one forest area. Also, if the villagers shoot a hornbill to death, it will destroy all large trees and cause drought. Pwo Karen villagers also held beliefs about pregnant family members, such as when family members enter the forest, they should not kill bears or pythons, and pregnant women should not eat bears, as this may result in the death of a child or infant. Even though the respondents had never encountered such a circumstance, there were traditions and beliefs regarding how people thought.
Signs of Good or Bad Luck
Seeing Wildlife in the Forest:
In Tak province, some Yunnan Chinese believe that seeing wild animals that live in holes and scales, like pangolins, during the day will cause bad luck. Some Akha believe that on the day they go into the forest to plant and find loris, they should not continue farming in that area and must find new areas for cultivation because it will cause poor agricultural productivity. Most Northern Thai and Burmese respondents also reported that if a dove or owl flew into a house, it was considered a bad omen that someone would die, which is considered an omen of events. If the red-wattled lapwing had chirped and flown through the village, there would have been a death.
In the Mae Hong Son province, the Pwo Karen villagers believe that if a pregnant woman sees baby footprints on a snake's head, particularly that of a Boa, they believe the baby may die after birth.
Hearing the Sound of Wildlife:
In the Mae Sot district of Tak, the Shan and northern Thai in the Mae Sot district of Tak also believe that if an owl flies to the front of the settlement and the residents hear someone's name shouted, they may get sick or be in danger. The Shan also reported that hearing the sound of a tiger roaring would bring misery and disaster to the village.
"Actually, most beliefs are related to big animals. For example, a tiger roaring will cause misfortune to the whole village. When I was a child, my elders told me that when a tiger was roaring like this, the villagers would evacuate to other places."
Shan males and females in Muang district (FGD_002)
Wildlife Entering the Community:
In the Mae Sot district of Tak, the northern Thai villagers believe that if a four-legged wild animal enters the village area, it is forbidden to attack, catch, and eat because it will cause the people who eat it to suffer misfortune and cause trouble for the village. Most of the respondents thought they should believe the stories of the seniors. Otherwise, something bad might happen. There are fewer beliefs today because it is common for wild animals to come into villages. After all, there is less forest cover.
In the Sop Moei district of Mae Hong Son, Pwo Karen villagers believe bringing live wild boars or chamois into the village is forbidden because the animals would bring bad luck. This belief has been passed down from prior generations. They also believe that snakes entering the community are considered a bad omen. Therefore, villagers forbid the killing of snakes. Nowadays, beliefs are significantly reduced, but in the community, there was an accident where a person fell down a tree that people thought might be related. However, according to reports from northern Thais in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces, snakes entering the house were considered fortunate and brought good luck. On the other hand, they reported that entering wild animals into the village caused bad luck or negative occurrences.
In addition, barking deer and wild boars entering a home or community will be a bad omen, causing strange events that have never happened before in the community, such as being guilty of ghosts and the occurrence of lawsuits in the community. In addition, elders in the community told stories that if wild animals entered the community, bad things would occur; for example, a herd of wild deer entered the community due to adultery. Therefore, a person who did the wrong thing had to organize a ghost-raising ceremony to ask for forgiveness from the ancestors' spirits, known as "Mawi Te" (the ritual involves killing pigs as an offering). This belief still exists, but it rarely happens.
In the Prob Phra district of Tak province, most Akha people believe in Buddhism or ancestral spirits, while a smaller portion of Akha people believe in Christianity. The Akha people believe that if a snake enters the house, it will be a bad omen, so they have to kill the snake, beat it to death, and then pack the dead snake with unhusked rice and take it outside the village. Some Akha people still prefer to eat dog meat but will not kill them in their homes because they believe it will bring bad things into the village. Akha also reported that if they encounter lorises, they will chase them away without harming them and refrain from farming in the areas. This belief was passed down from previous generations.
In the Muang district of Mae Hong Son, the Shan and northern Thais believe that barking deer and monitor lizards are not permitted to enter their homes or villages because they are considered bad omens. If they enter the village, the villagers are required to perform a house merit ceremony. If a snake is discovered in the house, it is considered good luck, a belief shared by the northern Thais. Likewise, the northern Thais in the Mae Sot district of Tak reported that snakes entering the house were considered fortunate and good luck, but wild animals entering the village would cause bad luck or bad things.
The ethnic groups of northern Thai, Pwo Karen, Lahu, Chinese, Mian (Yao), Akha, and Lisu in the Mae Sot and Phop Pra district have similar beliefs about the wildlife that a muntjac or a serow walking into the village was a bad omen, and an accident or a disaster would happen. Notably, they would not kill large and medium-sized wild animals entering the village, believing this might cause bad things or bring evil.
Shan and S'gaw Karen in the Muang district of Mae Hong Son reported that anyone who enters the forest and accidentally encounters a peacock would perish. If the individual first notices the feathers and tail, it will bring them good fortune for the day.
Perceptions Toward Diseases Associated with Wildlife Exposure
Awareness and concern regarding zoonotic diseases
In Tak province, most of the northern Thai men, including Burmese and Pwo Karen people in the community, have no concern about communicable diseases and lack knowledge of communicable diseases from the consumption of wild animals. The perception or awareness of animal-borne diseases and their prevention is relatively low because the local community authorities have not directly communicated to provide knowledge. In addition, there is no clear disease situation in the area that could be linked to a result of wildlife consumption. Nonetheless, most northern Thai respondents believe the slaughtering process was less likely to cause infectious diseases in wildlife. They reported that if a person has a wound on their hand, they should not dissect wild animals to avoid a blood infection. (Table 3)
Table 3
Perception or awareness toward diseases associated with wildlife exposures of ethnicities in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces.
| Provinces | Districts | Ethnicities | Diseases associated with wildlife exposures | Disease prevention measure |
| Tak | Mae Sot | Northern Thai, Burmese, Pwo Karen | - Lack of awareness that consuming wild meat can spread communicable diseases. - Lack of public health awareness received from local authorities. - Unable to identify symptoms of a specific disease. - Undercooked wild meat can expose the risk of zoonotic diseases. | - Villagers believe that consuming proper-cooked wild meat minimizes the risk of zoonotic diseases. - Border restrictions between Myanmar and Thailand limit the accessibility of wildlife hunting activities. - Local belief reported that a bruised person should not butcher hunted wild animals to avoid the risk of spreading infections. |
| | Phop Phra District | Akha, Yunnan's Chinese, Mien or Yao, Thai, Lahu or Muser, Lisu or Lisaw | - Lack of awareness that consuming wild meat can spread communicable diseases. - The majority consume wild meat for an alternative diet. - The Lahu ethnic group prefers consuming uncooked wild meat, which potentially causes diarrhea and parasitic infections. - Records of health concerns in the communities relate to food intoxication or poisoning are not available. - Many Yunnan's Chinese, Mien, Akha, and Lisu ethnic groups believe that consuming wild meat cures body aches. - Some people in ethnic groups do not believe in the health risks of consuming wild meat. - Women of Yunnan's Chinese ethnic group prefer only cooked wild meat to consume. | - Villagers believe that cooking meat reduces the risk of communicable diseases from wild animals. - Pre-cooked wild meat is considered safe to consume, yet to prevent diseases recommended to stop consumption. |
| Mae Hong Son | Muang District | Shan or Tai Yai, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen | - There is no belief in transmissible diseases from animals to humans. - Consumption of wild meat causes multiple health conditions like aches, helminths, diarrhea, ear malaise, allergic reaction, and infections leading to death. - Cobra meat with alcohol as food leads to death. - Villagers experienced toothaches after consuming venison. - Consuming raw boar meat causes parasitic infections like flukes. - Consuming venison increases the risk of infectious diseases and skin conditions due to poor blood circulation. - Consuming bat meat in raw form increases the risk of communicable diseases. | - Some villagers consumed cooked wild meat rather than raw meat to minimize contamination. |
| | Sop Moei District | Pwo Karen | - The villagers were informed about leptospirosis by health officials that leptospirosis could be transmitted by exposure of the skin, eyes, mouth, or nose to urine or tissues from infected animals, such as rodents, or through indirect contact with contaminated soil or water. - Respective to COVID-19 was claimed spread by bats which infected snakes and humans. - People who never consumed wild meat have weak immunity to adverse infections. - The community believe that living in the forest for days could cause malaria infection. - Most villagers consume wild meat, particularly the men in the community. | - Inadequate preventive measures for diseases consuming wild meat. - Abstain consumption and contact with poisonous wildlife to avoid zoonotic diseases. - Allergies consuming wild meat are remediated by the elderly with herbal medicines made by boiling and baking betel leaves, which cleanses and excretes toxins trapped in the body. |
"I don't know (about the diseases) either. The way to prevent it is for the animal to cook the meat first. I understand that if we have a wound, it might be infected, but I think it's probably a blood infection."
Northern Thai male in Mae Sot district (IDI_001)
The majority of northern Thai, Burmese, Pwo Karen, Akha, Yunnan's Chinese, and Mien respondents in Tak province perceive that infectious diseases caused by wildlife consumption are possible if undercooked food can lead to parasitic disease or if wild chicken consumption can be a carrier of avian influenza.
"Wild animals don't get vaccinated like us. It could cause any disease. We ate it instantly, some cooked, some raw, something like that."
Northern Thai males in Mae Sot district (FGD_001)
Some northern Thai and Burmese respondents from Tak province reported the potential health risks associated with consuming wild animals, indicating that there may be certain dangers in consuming these animals without proper preparation or understanding of potential health hazards.
"My daughter used to eat it, and there was excess saliva in her mouth. It probably contained an infection."
Burmese male in Mae Sot district (IDI_002)
Some northern Thai villagers in the Mae Sot district also reacted adversely after consuming wild animals. The adverse reactions mentioned specifically include leptospirosis and allergies.
"There should be a lot (of pathogens). Like me, I had leptospirosis and allergies."
Northern Thai males in Mae Sot district (FGD_002)
Furthermore, northern Thai respondents in the Mae Sot district claimed that hearing about COVID-19 was a communicable disease due to eating unusual dishes.
"There is strange eating of bats by simply scalding them with water and eating them. The first coronavirus patient had a history of eating bats that carried viruses, causing COVID-19." Northern male in Mae Sot district (IDI_003)
In Mae Hong Son province, some Pwo Karen, Shan or Tai Yai, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen obtained information from the health-promoting hospital (HPH) about a communicable disease related to the consumption of wildlife in the community that occurred, namely leptospirosis. The disease can be transmitted in many animals, most commonly in rats, possibly from eating contaminated food or contacting disease-carrying animals. (Table 3) As for COVID-19, some respondents reported that the cause of the disease was the coronavirus in bats, infecting snakes and infecting humans. In addition, some people reported that those who have never eaten wild animals or may have low immunity might develop allergic reactions from consuming wild animals, such as barking deer.
"I think the rat is probably the carrier of the disease; I think the rat is the carrier of leptospirosis, which is at risk of causing contagious disease. Personally, I'm not sure. I'm afraid of rats."
Pwo Karen male in Sop Moei district (FGD_001)
In Tak province, the majority of Lahu, Yunnan's Chinese, Mian, Lisu, and Akha ethnic respondents are unaware of cases of contagious diseases caused by eating wild animals directly. Most people eat wild animal meat to know the difference in taste compared to eating meat from the market, such as wild boar. Some people in the community, especially the Lahu ethnic group, also consume undercooked wild animal meat, which can cause diseases from parasites or diarrhea. However, there is no information on whether people in wildlife-eating communities have illnesses or transmission of infectious diseases from animals to humans. Some northern Thais also reported that COVID-19 is a contagious disease caused by the consumption of wildlife, but the consumption of well-done meat can reduce the risk. However, wildlife consumption is currently declining dramatically because the Thai-Myanmar border was closed due to COVID-19 travel restrictions. Also, wildlife on the Thai side of the border in the Tak province is declining, making it more difficult for community members to find wildlife.
Consequences of Consuming Wild Animals
Most Yunnan, Mien, Akha, and Lisu in Tak province believe that eating wild animals is able to cure body pain. Some people who eat wild animals feel better and think there is no harm or direct harm to their bodies. However, some respondents in the Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces emphasized the danger of consuming wild animals without proper cooking methods and the possibility of allergic reactions.
Some respondents reported that many people consume wild animals and subsequently die. It was understood that wild animals themselves were not inherently poisonous, but there were cases where individuals who consumed them suffered fatal consequences. The Mien male specifically mentioned the tragic death of his brother, who passed away after consuming raw wild boar Larb, a spicy salad mixed with fresh vegetables.
Similarly, the Pwo Karen male from Sop Moei district explained that consuming wild meat had the potential to cause allergic reactions. It was observed that consumption of wild meat could result in redness and itching of the skin, leading to the development of a rash. Some individuals were unable to consume wild meat due to their allergies to it.
"If we consume bushmeat, it might cause us to have an allergic reaction. It gets red on our skin and causes the sensation of itching. The main allergy symptoms will cause a rash on the skin like this. Some people can't eat wild meat because they have allergies to it."
Pwo Karen male in Sop Moei district (IDI_005)
In Muang district, Mae Hong Son province, some Shan community members consumed venomous animals raw, causing body aches, helminths, diarrhea, ear malaise, allergic reactions, and a risk of infection until death. Most respondents in the community reported that some community members died from eating cobras with alcohol.
Some Northern Thai respondents also reported that some community members got toothaches from eating venison or wild deer meat, and they were more likely to get parasites if they ate them raw.
"If we have a toothache, eating venison will worsen it."
Northern Thai male in Muang district (IDI_003)
Practices Related to Wildlife Contact and Consumption
Practices and Practices from Slaughtering Wild Animals
In the Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces, most villagers slaughtered wild beasts; they did not put on protective gear. When the slaughter was done, they did not have to clean up the blood. A Shan male from Muang district emphasized that if a person who dissected and came into contact with the wild animal's blood had wounds, there might be some risk of infection.
"If the person who dissected and touched the wild animal's blood and if we have wounds, there might be some risk."
Shan male in Muang district (IDI_004)
Some respondents reported that infectious diseases caused by animal consumption depend on the wildlife species. For example, eating venison causes skin disease or makes a person more susceptible to infectious diseases than other animals because it causes people with poor blood circulation to have more side effects than the average person.
Practices of Consuming Proper Cooked Wild Meats
There are different methods for preventing diseases from infecting wildlife. Some Mien, northern Thai, and Shan respondents in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces reported that they began to consume cooked wild meat and tried to avoid eating it raw. However, there is no other belief about the disease being transmitted from animal to human. Some Yunnan's Chinese villagers in Tak province reported that all wildlife should be cooked before eating. Even if it is cooked, it can still be harmful to someone's health.
In the Phop Phra district of Tak province, some respondents reported that the best way to prevent the disease from eating wild animals is to stop eating wild animals and that pre-cooking wild animal meats will make the consumption of wild meat safer. Most people in the community believe that cooking can reduce the risk of disease or harm from consuming wildlife.
"I think all wild animals are poisonous. If we ate well-done meat, it would be safer. However, even if we ate well-done meat, it might also be poisonous."
Mien male in Phop Phra district (FGD_002)
In the Muang district of Mae Hong Son, some Shan also reported that wild boars should not be eaten raw because they could harm their health. They noted that wild boars are omnivorous and might be more susceptible to diseases, including parasites like flukes, as they consume various foods, including potentially dirty ones.
"Wild boars can't be eaten raw. Wild boars are omnivorous and, therefore, more vulnerable than other wild animals. Wild animals that do not eat plants are the most dangerous."
Shan male in Muang district (IDI_004)
"Wild boars are at risk of getting parasites because they eat dirty food."
Shan males in Muang district (FGD_002)
Conclusions and Discussions
This qualitative study provided comprehensive baseline information on wildlife-related beliefs, taboos, usages, and health perceptions among ten ethnicities in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces, including northern Thais, Lahu, Chinese, Mian or Yao, Akha, Lisu, Pwo Karen, and S'gaw Karen. The results revealed that their beliefs and taboos regarding the characteristics of wildlife contact are similar and distinct.
According to the findings of this study, the northern Thais, Burmese, S'gaw Karen, and Pwo Karen have no explicit restrictions on the consumption of wildlife. Additionally, individual beliefs and taboos regarding the contact, usage, and consumption of wildlife vary based on their families' backgrounds. For instance, the Akha, Lisu, and Lahu ethnic groups have similar beliefs about wildlife, such as not killing large wild animals such as bulls or wild buffalo because of a belief that there is a ghost owner. However, some Shan and northern Thai people in this current study believe that eating wild animals symbolized a man's ability to hunt and demonstrate wealth. A previous study of ethnic Hmong in Laos and Thailand revealed that the Hmong engage in hunting practices that do not prohibit the consumption of wild animals (17, 18). Likewise, previous studies in Lao PDR regarding the belief that consuming wild animals could promote better health and the frequency of wildlife consumption demonstrates the social significance of these animals (18–21).
This current study also reported that some northern Thais believe that children, women, pregnant women, and the elderly should avoid consuming some wildlife, particularly wild deer and barking deer meat because it causes body aches and pains and is toxic to the young mother, which resulted were consistent with a previous study's findings that traditional Thai beliefs and practices are obviously intended to protect a new mother and baby's life and well-being (22). Also, a study on beliefs and taboos of the people of the northern periphery of the Korup National Park revealed that pregnant women are barred from eating brush-tailed porcupines because of its potentially negative impact on a child's intellectual capacity and some wildlife restricted from pregnant women (23).
In this study, some families' Burmese and Pwo Karen beliefs are passed down from their parents; for example, eating frogs or strange wild animals is prohibited because they accumulate toxicity in the body, causing allergic reactions and blisters. There is also the belief that people who eat turtles and ducks together are forbidden unless they are family members, friends, or relatives, as this will cause people to separate and live apart. People born in the Year of the Goat, according to some Pwo Karen, should refrain from eating goat meat. These findings were consistent with previous studies that reported the association between religious or cultural taboos and wildlife use (24, 25), and several species-specific taboos have their origins in beliefs that animals are religious symbols or even just as an aversion to the presence of toxins due to their poisons or unpleasant physical characteristics (26).
According to our respondent's perception or awareness of diseases associated with wildlife contact behaviors, the majority of male respondents from all ethnic groups were not concerned about communicable diseases and had a lack of information on communicable diseases from wild animal consumption. Our few respondents indicated that wildlife should not be consumed raw or uncooked; it can still harm one's health, causing diarrhea, body aches, allergic reactions, COVID-19, ear malaise, helminths, parasitic, and other animal-borne diseases, and a risk of infection until death. Some respondents mentioned being aware of some diseases caused by eating wild animals, such as diarrhea, influenza, asthma, and skin diseases. The above results were similar to a study of zoonotic disease risk perception in Cameroonian bushmeat markets, revealing that most bushmeat workers lacked understanding and did not wear gloves because they thought that disease risk was low despite contact with wildlife. However, respondents with a higher level of education were more concerned about outbreaks and more willing to accept the risks associated with butchering and preparing meat (27). As a result, knowledge about wild animal contact and its health implications should be addressed to raise awareness of animal-borne diseases and practice their prevention. As per recommendations from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), there should be interventions related to risk communication and raising awareness about public health/hygiene and conservation/animal protection, particularly in regards to public health messages that should be communicated prior to, during, and after zoonotic disease outbreaks (28); therefore, these ethnicities should be provided the necessary knowledge.
The study demonstrated how the perspectives, beliefs, and cultural contexts of various ethnic groups influence how people interact with wildlife in particular provinces and locations. However, this study aimed to collect data on illegal interactions with wildlife, such as hunting and consumption. Consequently, some respondents tended to conceal their actual behaviors. In this regard, our researchers ensured that the respondents' identities and information remained private. There was the use of probing and trust-building techniques. In addition, gender considerations were not the study's top priority because the primary objective was to collect extensive data on beliefs and taboos concerning wildlife in the target regions. Therefore, we primarily recruited males with experience as hunters and consumers of wildlife.
Several ethnic groups, such as the Shan, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen, and Pow Karen, have beliefs that discourage the killing of certain wild animals, viewing them as bad omens that could bring misfortune to their communities. These beliefs reflect a strong connection between cultural practices and wildlife conservation. Similarly, the previous study showed that ethnic minority communities practicing several beliefs and taboos in northern Thailand positively affect the sustainable management of natural resources, while others have negative effects (6, 7). For example, a study showed that the Karen believe the sound of gibbons near the people's agricultural land will bring good crops (29). A taboo against hunting and eating gibbons indirectly contributes to the conservation of endangered species in the Mae Hong Son forest (29, 30). On the other hand, the study found that some wild animals, such as snakes, are seen as signs of good luck for Shan and northern Thai but as bad omens for the Akha ethnic group. These beliefs reflect the deeply rooted spiritual connections that ethnic communities have with wildlife and the natural environment.
The previous study reported that the Shan or Tai Yai community in Chiang Rai province has a different experience of beliefs and taboos (31). Due to their adherence to traditional beliefs, they are prohibited from killing any wildlife as it would bring havoc to their community (31). To avoid the bad luck of the inherited taboos, the community divides its village area into two clusters to separate the villagers who had killed wild animals and still comply with their traditional beliefs (31). Similar to the results of this current study, several ethnic groups, such as the Shan, Northern Thai, S'gaw Karen, and Pow Karen, have beliefs that discourage the killing of certain wild animals, viewing them as bad omens that could bring misfortune to their communities. These beliefs reflect a strong connection between cultural practices and wildlife conservation.
The previous study highlighted the Yunnan Chinese community's adherence to a mixture of Buddhism and Taoism, which results in specific prohibitions on wildlife consumption (32, 33). In contrast, the majority of the Hui ethnic group have religious restrictions on eating specific wild animal meat, such as frogs, snakes, giant rats, and lizard monitors, as most of them are Muslims (32, 34). Similarly, the different ethnic groups, such as the Pow Karen, Shan, Northern Thai, and S'gaw Karen, hold strong beliefs against killing some wild animals. These beliefs often align with the conservation of endangered species, as harming these animals is believed to bring misfortune or negative consequences to the communities.
The previous study highlighted the close ties of tradition and belief that the Akha people in Northern Thailand have with animals, particularly chickens. They used chickens as offerings in their daily rites and had a prohibition against killing certain types of chickens, such as the junglefowl believed to be favored by the gods (35). However, this current study focused on a different group of Akha people in the Phop Phra district of Tak province, and it found no mention of prohibitions against killing chickens among them. Instead, the Akha people in this district mentioned taboos related to snakes entering households and prohibited the slaughtering of bulky animals like bulls and buffalos. Additionally, they avoided consuming dog meat due to its association with misfortune.
The findings demonstrate both shared and distinct perspectives on wildlife among these ethnic communities, highlighting the significance of cultural backgrounds and traditions in shaping their interactions with wildlife. The study reveals that some ethnic groups have no explicit restrictions on consuming wildlife, while others adhere to specific beliefs and taboos, prohibiting the consumption or killing of certain wild animals. Such beliefs often align with conservation efforts, contributing to the protection of endangered species. Additionally, the study uncovers varied levels of awareness regarding the health risks associated with wildlife consumption, indicating the need for targeted education and risk communication.