This study aimed to investigate, for the first time, the suitability of a multifactorial mindfulness measurement for Chinese university students. Following standard procedures, the CHIME questionnaire was translated into Chinese and administered to Chinese university students to assess CHIME-37. The results supported the 8-factor, 37-item mindfulness measurement tool (CHIME-37) among Chinese university students. The results demonstrated excellent model fit indices and good internal consistency for the total score and eight subscales.
Differentiation among the eight dimensions is a crucial characteristic of the CHIME. First, the AVE values for each of the eight dimensions exceeded 0.5, indicating good discriminant validity among the internal dimensions of the Chinese version of CHIME. This finding suggests that the eight skills and abilities of mindfulness are distinguishable from each other. Second, the Pearson correlation coefficients among the eight dimensions ranged between 0.3 and 0.7. This finding indicates that these dimensions are correlated but not overlapping. This finding aligns with the theoretical construction of mindfulness, which posits eight distinct components or skills. This has significant value for the comprehensive and accurate measurement of mindfulness levels and the assessment of the completeness and quality of mindfulness programs. Furthermore, mindfulness demonstrated moderate correlations with criterion-related validity. Thus, CHIME plays a strong predictive role in subjective well-being, psychological well-being, emotion regulation, insight, anxiety, depression, perceived stress, and overall health. Notably, the correlation between mindfulness and PWB was significantly higher than that between mindfulness and subjective well-being (SWLS, hedonic well-being). This finding confirms that mindfulness is strongly connected with aspects related to self-actualization, such as autonomy, personal growth, life goals [36], self-acceptance, environmental mastery, and positive relationships with others [37]. This alignment with Eastern cultural values emphasizes the realization of human potential, as opposed to the Western emphasis on individualistic hedonic well-being. Reflection and insight, considered crucial traits, skills, or abilities in Eastern cultures, are well represented in the Chinese version of CHIME (factors 7 and 8). Moreover, the strong correlation of mindfulness with reflection and insight provides excellent validation. Therefore, the revised mindfulness experience questionnaire, CHIME, is suitable for the current cultural context in China.
The refined Chinese version of CHIME affirms that mindfulness can be categorized into three groups: awareness (encompassing the basic dimensions of mindfulness), behavioral regulation (encompassing mindful actions and non-reactivity to inner experiences), and evaluative wisdom (representing the most advanced mindfulness skills) [38]. As per the theoretical framework of the CHIME Scale, mindfulness comprises eight components or skills, further categorized into 3 groups. Specifically, Factor 1, Internal Awareness, and Factor 2, External Awareness, signify the foundational skills of mindfulness. Cultivating these skills may enhance individuals’ focus on present experiences and actions, facilitating a shift from automatic navigation to an existence mode and enabling more skillful responses to challenges. Factor 3, Mindful Actions, and Factor 4, Acceptance and Non-Judgment, represent intermediate skills in behavioral regulation within mindfulness. Practicing mindfulness in daily life can result in improved focus and executive functioning for individuals. In the face of failure and setbacks, individuals can engage in self-care, allowing themselves space for acceptance and self-compassion and maintaining a rational mindset, emotions, and behaviors. Factor 5, Decentering and Non-Reactivity, and Factor 6, Openness to Experiences, signify intermediate skills in emotional regulation within mindfulness. When confronted with painful emotions, sensations, experiences, and thoughts, individuals can release attachments, avoid struggling, surrender without resistance, and uphold an open awareness or meta-awareness without evading pain. Factors 7, Relativity of Thoughts and Reality, and Factor 8, Insightful Thoughts, signify high-level skills or abilities in the cognitive defusion of mindfulness wisdom. By employing metacognitive patterns, individuals can overcome negative thoughts, emotions, and the cognitive fusion of needs, becoming aware of life’s imperfections, impermanence, and the concept of non-self. This transcendent practice enhances wisdom and insight into the impermanence of life. Furthermore, our research results validate that the Chinese version of CHIME aligns with the four effective mechanisms of mindfulness: attention regulation, body awareness, emotion regulation, and a change in self-perspective. Through the synergistic action of these four mechanisms, individuals’ self-regulatory abilities are enhanced [39].
In the analysis of criterion-related validity, the Chinese version of CHIME exhibited significant positive correlations with subjective well-being, psychological well-being, emotional tranquility, self-reflection, and insight but showed negative correlations with physical and mental health issues, depression-anxiety-stress, and expressive inhibition. These findings suggest that mindfulness skills and abilities are centered on redirecting individuals’ attention to the direct experience of their body, mind, emotions, sensations, and thoughts. This process helps prevent students from comparing themselves in terms of achievements or other aspects, fostering increased happiness, inner peace, enhanced reflection and insight, and improved cognitive regulation abilities among them. Simultaneously, mindfulness skills and abilities can alleviate physical and mental suffering, reduce perceived stress levels, and minimize emotional suppression. A decline in mindfulness may be associated with a decrease in physical health, psychological distress, and emotional imbalance. Mindfulness serves as a positive psychological resource and trait for college students, aiding in their adjustment of body and mind, emotion regulation, increased happiness, and the enhancement of wisdom. Furthermore, the early adulthood phase in college represents a peak period for wisdom development [40]. Mindfulness may contribute to the enhancement of wisdom and insight, providing individuals with additional resources to cope with academic, life, and societal challenges.
Implications for research and practice
The eight factors of mindfulness correspond to eight skills or abilities associated with mindfulness, positively contributing to enhancing college students’ psychological resilience, mental qualities, emotional regulation, and wisdom. This offers valuable insights for improving mental health among college students. Generally, these eight skills and abilities of mindfulness are developed progressively, beginning with basic skills and advancing to intermediate and advanced skills. Factors 1 and 2 signify the fundamental dimensions of mindfulness (internal sensations), encompassing basic mindfulness skills. Individuals can nurture the ability to stay connected with their inner and outer experiences through body scanning and breath observation. Factors 3 and 4 can be enhanced through mindful walking, stretching, sitting meditation (non-selective awareness practices), and mindful dishwashing. Factors 5 and 6 foster psychological resilience, emotional acceptance, and adaptability to present moment experiences. Meditation on “recognizing aversion” and the three-minute breath space exercise can contribute to these skills. Factors 7 and 8 help develop individuals’ ability to maintain clear cognition, benevolence, and take wise and insightful actions following life’s challenges. Mindfulness meditation (recognizing the relativity of thoughts and reality) and compassionate meditation can contribute to developing these skills. For college students engaging in mindfulness practices, beginners can start with basic exercises and progressively move on to intermediate and advanced practices. After establishing a solid foundation in basic skills, individuals can gradually explore more advanced practices, following a step-by-step approach starting from easy tasks and then switching to challenging tasks.
Limitations and future research
First, the participants were exclusively recruited from four universities in the southern, central, and western regions of China, potentially limiting the generalizability of the results to universities across the country. Future research could address this limitation by seeking a more representative sample from various regions nationwide, ensuring a broader representation, particularly from the eastern and northern parts of China. Including students from diverse geographical areas would enhance the extrapolation of research results to the entire population of Chinese university students.
Second, the reliance on self-report measures as the sole assessment tool is another limitation. To overcome this, future research should use diverse measurement methods, such as objective observations, interviews with teachers, parents, or school staff, or the integration of standardized assessments. The incorporation of multiple measurement approaches would enable researchers to conduct a more comprehensive and thorough evaluation of mindfulness in Chinese university students, mitigating potential measurement biases and offering a more accurate depiction.
Third, the study’s cross-sectional design restricts the ability to infer causality from the presented findings. The study focused on a non-clinical sample of university students. Replicating these findings to a clinical population of university students is highly recommended to investigate the relation between mindfulness and psychopathological indicators in university students. Given these limitations, several recommendations emerge for future research. First, efforts should be made to secure a more representative sample of university students from diverse regions of China to enhance the generalizability of survey results. Alongside self-report measures, incorporating diverse assessment methods, such as objective observations and standardized assessments, can provide a more holistic assessment of mindfulness levels and abilities in university students. Emphasis should be placed on conducting longitudinal studies covering multiple academic years to capture the dynamic nature of mindfulness levels and abilities in Chinese university students.