Effect of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and muscle mechanical properties in ice hockey players

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3959833/v1

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Effect of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and muscle mechanical properties in ice hockey players

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3959833/v1

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In the study we aimed to determine the impact of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and mechanical properties of muscles depending on the sports level/competition experience in hockey players of the academic and senior teams. The study was conducted on hockey players of the senior team (n = 17) and the academic team (n = 21). All measurements were made in the sports hall and ice rink where both teams train. We measured the muscle stiffness, postural stability and competitor's jump height before and after training. The most important observation was that after the end of the same training unit, the senior team players achieved higher values in the CMJ (p = .000102) and SJ (p = .000020) tests and lower values in the stabilometric tests than the academic players. This may indicate a high training adaptation visible in athletes with a longer training experience, in whom an increased level of power and improvement in balance were observed, despite the increasing training fatigue. Our results suggest increased ice hockey-specific training adaptation and exercise tolerance in players with extended training experience. This information shows a more significant impact of training experience than chronological age.

Health sciences/Health occupations

Health sciences/Risk factors

team games

training monitoring

muscle stiffness

sport performance

Many sports are characterized by asymmetric kinetic and motor patterns and unilateral actions such as jumping, sprinting, and changing direction [1, 2]. Studies show that particular participation in team sports, where unilateral action is common, entails asymmetric functional and structural changes [3]. To a certain extent, the occurrence of asymmetry in the human body is a normal phenomenon. However, one-sided loading in the long term may lead to an increased risk of injury or a decrease in the sports level [4]. Asymmetries in team sports are most often an adaptive consequence of a long-term, one-sided load caused by technical elements performed during training or sports competition [5]. They occur in the area of the upper [6] and lower limbs [7, 8].

The relationship between asymmetry in strength, power, the range of motion and mobility, and the risk of injury or impaired performance may be related to the limitation of weaker limbs to produce and/or absorb the same amount of force or mobility as the dominant limb. Existing studies suggest that limb balance disorders occur in sports involving changes in the direction of movement (COD) and rotational range of motion (ROM), such as basketball [9], soccer [10] and volleyball [11]. These differences in performance or composition between the limbs can be linked to anatomical asymmetry [5], previous injuries such as suprascapular neuropathy [9], specific sports requirements [12] training experience, position during a game or mobility skills [5].

The physical demands of ice hockey suggest that injuries to the lower and upper extremities may be common [13]. This results, among others, from the dominance of the body side holding the stick and numerous changes in the direction of movement or sudden stops [14]. In addition, habitual strenuous activities cause changes in the structural and mechanical properties of the tendons and muscles of athletes [15]. Therefore, prolonged hockey training, added to the load characteristics of the lower and upper limbs during the game, may be one of the causes of overuse injuries, which are the most common forms of injury in ice hockey [16]. Many studies have examined the incidence of ice hockey injuries [17, 18].

The mechanical properties of muscles and tendons have already been linked to dynamic performance [19], and higher stiffness values are beneficial for activities involving a fast stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and activities involving high movement speed [19]. Building on earlier research by Bohm et al. [20], asymmetric load profiles between the dominant and non-dominant lower limbs can cause significant differences in the mechanical properties of the tendons, such as increased stiffness of the Achilles tendon on the dominant side. However, there is still no clear answer regarding muscle adaptation [21]. Nevertheless, previous studies on hockey players have not evaluated the effect of lower and upper limb dominance on muscle and tendon stiffness by myotometry [22]. Myotometry is an operator-independent method of assessing stiffness, flexibility, and muscle tone in the lower and upper extremities that does not require as much experience from the operator as other techniques, such as ultrasound [22]. In addition, the feasibility, reproducibility and legitimacy of using myotometry in assessing musculotendinous stiffness in athletes such as karatekas, track cyclists and climbers have already been demonstrated [23, 24, 25]. However, only a few studies describe the myotometric evaluation of muscles and tendons in sports [23], but none have been conducted with hockey players.

The role of interlimb asymmetries and their impact on motor or athletic performance is ambiguous. While it is logical to assume that minimizing these differences is desirable, whether this has a tangible and measurable effect on motor or athletic performance remains unclear. The available literature shows that asymmetries between the limbs of about 10% result in a decrease in jump height [26] and slower change of direction (COD) time [27], thus indicating that the reduction of these differences may have a beneficial effect on the result. In contrast, other studies have shown conflicting athletic results [28, 29]. The occurrence of increased asymmetry between the limbs can be expected in the case of sports activities in which the preferred limb dominance is visible, e.g., tennis [30]. Moreover, the asymmetries between the limbs for kinetic and kinematic variables may show different values. Therefore, not all observed differences between body sides may be relevant to performance results [31, 32]. It seems interesting to assess asymmetry in the context of the increasing level of fatigue, e.g., in training conditions. On the other hand, training experience and the level of training of athletes may affect the acute responses of athletes, and thus the level of post-exercise changes in the body's functions, e.g., neuromuscular [33] or mechanical properties [25]. In conclusion, by better understanding the impact of asymmetry between limbs on motor and athletic performance, we will be able to provide important information on the design of training and testing protocols.

This is why the study aimed to determine the impact of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and mechanical properties of muscles depending on the sports level/competition experience in hockey players of the academic and senior teams. The following hypotheses were put forward: I) a more extended training period for hockey players increases the resting level and reduces post-exercise functional asymmetry; II) the one-sidedness of action resulting from holding the stick affects the motor performance of hockey players; III) training experience affects the level of fatigue during training.

The height of the counter jump (CMJ) among the senior team players did not differ statistically significant due to the stick held before and after the effort F _(1.15) = 1.1587, p = .29874. However, there was a significant improvement in the height of the jump after the end of the effort p = .000004. There was a significant CMJ height difference in the academic team due to the held stick F _(1.19) = 5.2643, p = .033332. In addition, a considerable deterioration in the height of the jump was observed after exercise p = .000102.

The height of the squat jump due to the held stick did not differ in the senior team F _(1.15) = .32173, p = .57896 or in the academic team F _(1.19) = 3.3057, p = .08484. In addition, a significant improvement in the height of the SJ jump was observed among the players of the senior team p = .000020 and a substantial deterioration of the height among the players of the academic team p = .000000.

The length of the swing path was significantly different after exercise in the senior team F _(1.15) = .54504, p = .47174. Among the players of the academic team, no significant differences in the length of the swing path were observed after the end of the effort F _(1.19) =. 32238, p = .57683. In the case of both teams, no significant differences in the length of the swing path were observed due to the held stick (seniors p = .055376, academics p = .576830).

This study aimed to determine the effect of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and mechanical properties of muscles depending on the sports level/competition experience of hockey players of the academic and senior teams. The most important observation was that after the end of the same training unit, the senior team players achieved higher values in the CMJ and SJ tests and lower values in the stabilometric tests than the academic players. This may indicate a high training adaptation visible in athletes with a longer training experience, in whom an increased level of power and improvement in balance were observed, despite the increasing training fatigue (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).

CMJ is one of the most important tests for assessing lower limb muscle fatigue [33]. This study showed a significant reduction in performance levels in CMJ (4%) after exercise among academic team players. Similar results were obtained by Sánchez-Migallón et al. [34] in the height of CMJ jumps among female field hockey players after a game effort (a decrease by 11.3%). One of the reasons for the decrease in values in jumping tests (CMJ and SJ) after the end of the effort may be muscle fiber damage [35] and/or increasing such markers of fatigue as creatine kinase or myoglobin after intermittent exercise [36]. It should be noted, however, that the results of the senior team's CMJ and SJ tests improved after the effort's end. In this case, it may indicate that the body's potential to continue the effort is maintained or that the intensity of the effort needed to create such fatigue changes as in the academic team is insufficient. Finally, athletes who experience decreased jumping height may require additional rest between training and matches. Especially in the later phase of the season, when the achieved CMJ test values are the most sensitive to fatigue and different positions of players [37].

Another variable determining the state of functional capacity that could directly affect the magnitude of deviation of the center of gravity and the change of body posture in response to the intense physical effort is the length of the COP path [38]. Paillard et al. [39] showed that short, high-intensity general (whole-body) exercise increases postural sway when energy expenditure exceeds the threshold for lactate accumulation. However, Zemkova and Hamer [40] showed that hyperventilation resulting from short, intense exercises can also lead to increased swinging. Both general and local exercises change the effectiveness of sensory stimuli and motor output of postural control [39]. Thus, sensorimotor impairment most likely also plays a role in increased swinging after exercise [40]. Postural adaptations occur in trained individuals as elite athletes exhibit better postural performance and a different postural strategy than sub-elite athletes [41]. In this case, the results achieved by the senior team players may indicate further readiness to continue the effort (Fig. 3).

In the post-exercise assessment of muscle properties, no significant changes in muscle stiffness were noted in any of the measured groups for both teams (Table 1 and Table 2). This result may be difficult to explain due to the lack of previous studies documenting the effect of intermittent sports, such as ice hockey, on muscle stiffness. Another element affecting the problematic analysis of the results is the specific environment of sports competition. The assessment of muscle stiffness should also consider additional indirect analyses affecting muscle stiffness, i.e., the interval nature of the effort, collisions with the stands, the opponent and the puck [42, 43]. Therefore, it seems reasonable to include all the indirect factors in the assessment of muscle properties in hockey, which requires further analysis.

Table 1

Comparison of mean (\(\underset{\_}{x}\) ± SD) muscle stiffness of selected areas of the body pre-workout among Academic and Senior teams
parameters	academic	Senior	p -Value	t - Test
Right Up [N/m]	259.88 ± 22.37	255.80 ± 24.12	0.593	-0.539
Left Up [N/m]	252.88 ± 21.90	254.24 ± 19.65	0.844	0.199
Right Down [N/m]	255.05 ± 31.46	251.84 ± 35.91	0.771	-0.293
Left Down [N/m]	253.24 ± 33.11	253.92 ± 35.28	0.951	0.062
Right Up – right trapezius (upper part), right trapezius (lower part), right triceps brachii medial head (central part), right pector major (central part), right biceps brachii short head (central part); Left Up – left trapezius (upper part), left trapezius (lower part), left triceps brachii medial head (central part), left pector major (central part), left biceps brachii short head (central part); Right Down – right adductor longus (central part), right vastus lateralis (lower part), right biceps femoris (central part); Left Down - left adductor longus (central part), left vastus lateralis (lower part), left biceps femoris (central part)

Table 2

Comparison of mean (\(\underset{\_}{x}\) ± SD) muscle stiffness of selected areas of the body post-workout among Academic and Senior teams
parameters	academic	Senior	p -Value	t - Test
Right Up [N/m]	268.31 ± 29.94	266.97 ± 38.99	0.905	-0.121
Left Up [N/m]	272.09 ± 37.31	272.31 ± 43.26	0.987	0.017
Right Down [N/m]	268.75 ± 43.14	262.18 ± 45.86	0.653	-0.454
Left Down [N/m]	259.89 ± 33.27	252.12 ± 34.89	0.488	-0.701
Right Up – right trapezius (upper part), right trapezius (lower part), right triceps brachii medial head (central part), right pector major (central part), right biceps brachii short head (central part); Left Up – left trapezius (upper part), left trapezius (lower part), left triceps brachii medial head (central part), left pector major (central part), left biceps brachii short head (central part); Right Down – right adductor longus (central part), right vastus lateralis (lower part), right biceps femoris (central part); Left Down - left adductor longus (central part), left vastus lateralis (lower part), left biceps femoris (central part)

This study certainly has limitations. Measurements were carried out only on 17 players of the senior team and 21 players of the academic team, so these were not full hockey teams in both groups. In addition, taking into account the Optogait optical measuring system used by us to assess the height of the CMJ and SJ jump, it made it impossible to determine the action of the ground reaction force during the jump, specifying the left and right lower limbs.

Our results suggest increased ice hockey-specific training adaptation and exercise tolerance in players with extended training experience. This information shows a more significant impact of training experience than chronological age. And thus, the need to diversify and individualize training by coaches and practitioners due to a player's experience. Therefore, players should be selected responsibly for match and training formations, especially during intensive training. The division into younger and older players with training experience can give better training results while reducing the risk of injury and undertraining.

Tested individuals

The study was conducted on hockey players of the senior team (n = 17) and the academic team (n = 21). The senior team competes at the national level (Polish Ekstraliga Ice Hockey), and the academic team at the European level (European University Hockey League). The training period was 18.7 ± 2.8 years for the senior team and 10.1 ± 1.4 years for the academic team. Players playing as goalkeepers were excluded from the study. All measurements were made in the sports hall and ice rink where both teams train. The project received a positive opinion from the University Ethics Committee for Research (14/2022) and was carried out following the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained consent for research from all participants, abstained from alcohol consumption and physical exertion for 48 hours, and did not consume caffeine for 24 hours before the study. Measurement procedures included resting measurements before and post-exercise measurements after training. Table 3. presents data characterizing the tested players.

Table 3

The anthropometric characteristics of participants (mean and standard deviation).
Participants	age (years)	body height (cm)	bodyweight (kg)	Skeletal Muscle Mass (kg)	Body Fat (%)
senior team \(\overline{x} \pm \text{S}\text{D}\)	27.7 ± 3.9	183.1 ± 5.5	89.2 ± 7.5	43.9 ± 4.0	14.5 ± 3.2
academic team \(\overline{\varvec{x}} \pm \mathbf{S}\mathbf{D}\)	18.4 ± 1.5	175.8 ± 5.5	76.6 ± 7.9	36.5 ± 3.3	16.6 ± 6.5

Study design/Experimental protocol

Measurement procedures

Muscle Stiffness Measurements

The MyotonPro wireless handheld device (Myoton AS, Estonia and Myoton Ltd., London, UK) was used to measure muscle stiffness. The device was placed perpendicularly to the skin over the measured belly muscle. This device was used with a fixed initial load (0.18 N) to determine the initial compression of the subcutaneous tissues and to perform a short (15 ms) mechanical tap with a defined force (0.4 N) followed by a quick release, thereby causing damped oscillations recorded by the probe test (http://www.myoton.com/en/Technology/Technical-specification). The non-neural tone or voltage state was calculated from the signal spectrum F_max (fast fourier transform) and the damped oscillations' characterized frequencies (Hz). Stiffness (N·m ^− 1) was described as the muscle's ability to resist an external force that changed its shape. Elasticity was characterized as the logarithmic decrease (log) of damped oscillations (the dissipation of mechanical energy during 1 oscillation cycle), thus reflecting the tissue's ability to recover from deformation. The first measurements were made before training. The test was also repeated according to the same procedure after the end of training. The athletes lay flat on their backs or stomachs on a special bed and rested for 10 minutes before starting muscle stiffness measurements. The tested areas on each belly muscle were located with a measuring tape and marked with a skin-safe pen (Fig. 4). A pillow was placed under the head of the subjects, and a special roller pillow was placed under the lower leg, which facilitated relaxation. 16 single measurements per muscle (16 points) were taken for 8 muscles on the right and 8 on the left side.

Stabilometric Measurements

The assessment of postural stability was based on the analysis of the center of foot pressure on the ground (COP) using the ALFA Stabilometric Platform with dimensions of 550×550×80 mm (AC International East, Poland). Two measurements were taken in a standing position with feet hip-width apart (eyes open and eyes closed). Data was recorded for 30 seconds at each position with 60-second intervals between trials. Both the screen and the path of the COP were hidden from the participants. The following COP parameters were recorded: length swing, area, and speed in the x and y axes. The tests were carried out in an empty and quiet room. The platform was placed 150 cm from the wall. A load distribution test was also carried out, which consisted of a 30-second measurement of differences in the load on the right and left limbs.

Vertical Jumping Measurements

Each competitor's jump height measurements were assessed using SJ (squad jump) and CMJ (counter-movement jump). The Optogait optical measurement system was used to measure each stroke. In order to avoid interference with the jump height measurements, personnel observed each repetition to control knee extension from take-off to the beginning of the landing phase of each subject. After completing the standard warm-up, the competitors performed two series of jumps in the following order: (a) SJ with arms in akimbo position (b) CMJ with arms in akimbo position. Squat jumps were performed from a position parallel to the feet and with the knees bent to about 90°. Then, at the staff's signal, the participant jumped as high as possible with limited arm movement. During CMJ jumps, the competitors bent their knees to the depth of their choice (about 90°), dynamically lowering the center of body mass, and then performed a dynamic jump that was as high as possible (Fig. 5). Each jump was performed 2 times, with a 60-second break between the jumps and a 3-minute break between each type of jump. The best measurements were selected for statistical analysis.

Statistical analysis

For each variable, the arithmetic mean was determined (\(\underset{\_}{x}\) ) and standard deviation (SD). The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess the normality of the distribution of the examined features, and the homogeneity of variance was assessed with the Levene test. Pre- and post-exercise variables were compared using the parametric T-student test for paired samples or the non-parametric Wilcoxon pairwise order test. Comparing the differences between the teams, the parametric T-test for independent samples or the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used. ANOVA with repeated measures was used to compare differences between variables before and after exercise, and Friedman's test was used for non-normally distributed variables. Statistically significant differences were assumed for p < 0.05.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author Contribution

M.S., K.M. and D.M. wrote the main manuscript text and A.B. prepared all figures and tables. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Additional Information

None of the authors have a conflict of interest or relevant financial relationship.

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Acknowldgments
This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Poland) / Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences.
Additional Information
None of the authors have a conflict of interest or relevant financial relationship.

No competing interests reported.

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Effect of training effort on neuromuscular control, static balance and muscle mechanical properties in ice hockey players

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Abstract

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Introduction

Results

Discussion

Methods

Tested individuals

Study design/Experimental protocol

Measurement procedures

Muscle Stiffness Measurements

Stabilometric Measurements

Vertical Jumping Measurements

Statistical analysis

Data availability

Declarations

Author Contribution

Data Availability

References

Additional Declarations

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