Demographic characteristics of the respondents
From the total respondents (N = 241), 90.04% (N = 217) were males. Females accounted for 9.96% (N = 24) of the respondents. Most of the respondents (N = 70, 29.1%) were in the age group of 46–55 (Fig. 2).
Among the respondents, 47.7% (N = 115) were illiterate (cannot read and write), 34.9% (N = 84) had informal education (can read and write), 14.5% (N = 35) attended primary education, and 2.9% (N = 7) attended secondary education.
Economic activities of the respondents
The major economic activities of the people living around the Mankira forest were subsistence agriculture, which includes crop production, livestock rearing, and beekeeping. About 88% (N = 212) of the respondents are engaged in mixed agriculture (crop production, livestock rearing, and beekeeping); 6.2% (N = 15) of the respondents perform only crop production; and the remaining 5.8% (N = 14) of the respondents depend on crop production and other labor works.
The size of the farmland owned by respondents’ ranged between 0.25 and 3 ha, with a mean of 1.09 ha. Most of the respondents (N = 115, 47.7%) indicated that they have farmland sizes of only 1–1.5 ha. Whereas, 33.6% (N = 81) of the respondents reported that they have < 1 ha of farm land around the area. Others reported that they have a farmland size of > 2 ha (N = 17, 7.1%), and 1.75–2ha (N = 28, 11.6%) (Fig. 3).
Most of the respondents (N = 147, 61%) had farmlands within a distance of less than 1 km from the forest edge. Whereas, 34.9% (N = 84) of the respondents had farmland at a distance between 1 and 2 km, and 4.1% (N = 10) of the respondents had farmland at a distance above 2 km from the forest edge (Fig. 4).
The most commonly cultivated crop types around the study area were teff, maize, potato, wheat, and barley. Most of the respondents (49%, N = 118) cultivate teff and maize. Others cultivated potatoes at 18.2% (N = 44), wheat at 13.7% (N = 33), barley at 10.4% (N = 25), and vegetables and other crops at 8.7% (N = 21) around the forest edge (Table 2).
Table 2
Types of crops mostly cultivated around the forest edge by the respondents
Types of crops
|
Villages
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Gola
|
Yetiti
|
Bahita
|
Becha
|
Teff
|
21
|
12
|
20
|
7
|
60
|
24.9
|
Maize
|
18
|
14
|
17
|
9
|
58
|
24.1
|
Potato
|
13
|
7
|
10
|
14
|
44
|
18.2
|
Wheat
|
3
|
4
|
9
|
17
|
33
|
13.7
|
Barley
|
2
|
6
|
7
|
10
|
25
|
10.4
|
Vegetables and other crops
|
12
|
3
|
6
|
0
|
21
|
8.7
|
Total
|
69
|
46
|
69
|
57
|
241
|
100
|
The mean number of livestock per household in the villages
The major livestock kept by the community in the study area were cattle (cow and ox), sheep, goats, and pack animals (donkey and horse). Respondents' livestock holdings ranged from 2 to 16. There was no significant difference (χ2 = 138, df = 9, p > 0.05) in the major types of livestock kept in the four villages (Fig. 5). But there was a significant difference (χ2 = 8, df = 3, p < 0.05) among the total number of livestock owned by each household.
Crop damage and the extent of crop damage caused by the crop raiders
Farmers reported major conflicts with Anubis baboons (N = 94, 39%), Grivet monkeys (N = 58, 24.1%), porcupines (N = 37, 15.3%), and rats (N = 32, 13.3%). Respondents place the Anubis baboon as the top crop-raiding species compared to others (Table 3).
Table 3
Crop-raiding species in the study area
Species
|
Scientific name
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Anubis baboon
|
Papio anubis
|
94
|
39
|
Grivet monkey
|
Chlorocebus aethiops
|
58
|
24.1
|
Porcupine
|
Hystrix cristata
|
37
|
15.3
|
Rodents (rats)
|
Unidentified
|
32
|
13.3
|
Birds
|
Unidentified
|
20
|
8.3
|
The responses of the respondents revealed that not all crops are equally affected by crop raiders. Maize was the most susceptible crop to crop raiders (N = 115, 47.7%). Next to maize, potatoes (N = 61, 25.3%), wheat (N = 30, 12.5%), and barley (N = 20, 8.3%) were other crops preferred by crop raiders. But the least damaged crop by the crop raiders was Teff (N = 15, 6.2%) (Table 4).
Table 4
Crop destruction by crop-raiders
Crop type
|
Frequency
|
Percentage
|
Maize
|
115
|
47.7
|
Potato
|
61
|
25.3
|
Wheat
|
30
|
12.5
|
Barley
|
20
|
8.3
|
Teff
|
15
|
6.2
|
The crop that is mostly eaten by the Anubis baboon in all growth stages is maize. Next to the Anubis baboon were the grivet monkey, porcupine, rodents, and birds, which are other crop raiders that damaged different crops at different stages. Grivet monkeys damaged maize and barley near the maturation stage in the morning and evening. Rodents, particularly porcupines, caused damage to maize and potatoes during the maturation stage at night. In addition, different species of birds damaged maize, wheat, teff, and barley at the maturation stage of crops during the day (Table 5). Thus, farmers whose farms are located near the forest are potentially at risk of losing different crops throughout the production season.
Table 5
Crop raiders, types, and stages of crops damaged within specific times of the day
Crop-raiding animals
|
Type of crop
|
Stages of crop damage
|
Damage hour of the day
|
Anubis baboon
|
Maize
|
in all stages
|
evening and morning
|
Barley
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
Wheat
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
Grivet monkey
|
Maize
|
at seedling
|
morning and evening
|
Barley
|
at seedling
|
morning and evening
|
Porcupine
|
Potato
|
at fruiting
|
at night
|
Maize
|
at fruiting
|
at night
|
Rats
|
Wheat
|
in all stages
|
day and night
|
Maize
|
in all stages
|
day and night
|
Birds
|
Wheat
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
Maize
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
Barley
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
Teff
|
at fruiting
|
evening and morning
|
The extent of crop damage caused by crop raiders
There was a significant difference between the distance of farmland from the forest edge and the mean extent of crop damage by the crop raiders (F = 84.966, df = 2, p < 0.05). The Pearson correlation indicated that the distance of the farmland from the forest edge and the mean extent of crop damage by crop raiders have a slightly negative correlation (r = -0.645, p < 0.05). The distance of the farmland from the forest edge was an important factor in determining the degree of crop damage. Based on that, most of the damage was severer around the buffer zone than for farmers whose farmlands are far from the forest edge. Farmers who have farmlands (100%) within 1 km of the forest reported severe crop loss.
Livestock predation
Like the crop loss, domestic animal predation by carnivorous animals was reported from the four study villages. Cattle, sheep, goat, donkey, and chicken losses by the common jackal, spotted hyena, and different kinds of raptor bird species were recorded. Based on the respondents’ responses in the past five years, between January 2017 and May 2021, a total of 321 predatory attacks were reported. From these, 41.1% (N = 132) were sheep (Ovis aries), 33.3% (N = 107) were goats (Capra hircus), 12.1% (N = 39) were chickens (Gallus domesticus), 3.7% (N = 12) were donkeys (Equus africanus asinus), and the remaining 9.7% (N = 31) were cattle (Fig. 6).
There was no significant difference among the villages in the total number of domestic animals killed (F = 0.110, df = 3, p > 0.05). There was, however, a significant relationship between the seasons and the number of domestic animals killed (F = 6.124, df = 1, p < 0.05). Livestock predation was higher in the wet season than in the dry season. Of the total of 321 domestic animals killed by predators in the past five years, 67% (N = 215) were killed during the wet season and 33% (N = 106) during the dry season.
The most common predatory wild animal species in the study area was the common jackal, which killed sheep and goats while they were grazing on pasture land during the day. During the late evening, dusk, and night, spotted hyenas have also killed donkeys, sheep, and cattle. During the day, various raptor bird species attack the village chickens (Table 6).
Table 6
Types of predator species and the number of domestic animals predated during the last five years (Archive, Charts of Mankira Keblese, 2021).
Types of predator
|
Type of livestock lost
|
Number of livestock killed
|
Percentage
|
Common Jackal
|
Goat, and sheep
|
187
|
58.3
|
Spotted hyena
|
Cattle, donkeys, and sheep
|
95
|
29.6
|
Raptor bird species
|
Chicken
|
39
|
12.1
|
Total
|
|
321
|
100
|
According to the Decha district agricultural office, the amount of domestic animal predation by carnivorous animals increased over time within the Mankira Forest (Table 7).
Table 7
Number of domestic animals lost by predators around the study area (Archive, Charts of Mankira Kebele, 2021)
Years
|
Total
|
Loss in Birr
|
Livestock type
|
2017
|
2018
|
2019
|
2020
|
2021
|
|
|
Sheep
|
16
|
24
|
26
|
31
|
35
|
132
|
198000
|
Goat
|
14
|
20
|
25
|
20
|
28
|
107
|
117700
|
Chicken
|
4
|
5
|
7
|
9
|
14
|
39
|
9750
|
Cattle
|
3
|
2
|
5
|
8
|
13
|
31
|
248000
|
Donkey
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
5
|
12
|
72000
|
Total
|
38
|
52
|
65
|
71
|
95
|
321
|
645450
|
Attitude of the respondents towards wildlife conservation
According to the responses of respondents, most (N = 137, 56.8%) of the respondents, i.e., 28.5% (N = 39) from Gola, 18.2% (N = 25) from Yetiti, 30.7% (N = 42) from Bahita, and 22.6% (N = 31) from the Becha villages, reported that they had a negative attitude towards wildlife conservation. The main reason given for the latter view was the conflict with wild animals and the resulting economic losses. While 34.9% (N = 84) of the respondents, i.e., 29.8% (N = 25) from Gola, 19% (N = 16) from Yetiti, 29.8% (N = 25) from Bahita, and 21.4% (N = 18) from the Becha villages, reported that they had positive attitudes towards wildlife conservation. Others, including five (25% of respondents) from Gola, five (25% of respondents) from Yetiti, two (10%) from Bahita, and eight (40% of respondents) from Becha villages, reported neutral attitudes towards wildlife conservation (Fig. 7).
There was no significant difference in the conservation attitude of the respondents towards wildlife among the respondents at different levels of education (χ2 = 4.257, df = 6, p > 0.05). Nonetheless, there was a significant difference in the attitudes of the respondents among the age groups (χ2 = 165.019, df = 8, p < 0.05). Different age groups of the respondents had different attitudes towards wildlife and their forest habitat. Most of the respondents, 84.5% (N = 60) with an age group above 56 years old, have a positive attitude towards wildlife and forest habitat (Table 8). The Spearman correlation coefficient (r = -0.427, p = 0.000) also showed that there was a significant negative correlation between the age group of the respondents and their conservation attitude towards the wildlife around the Mankira forest.
Table 8: Attitudes of the respondent s’ among different age groups towards wildlife conservation
|
Age group
|
Frequency
|
Percent (%)
|
Attitude
|
<36 years
|
36–45 yrs
|
46–55 yrs.
|
56–65 yrs
|
>65 yrs.
|
|
|
Positive
|
6
|
11
|
7
|
45
|
15
|
84
|
34.9
|
Negative
|
25
|
49
|
63
|
0
|
0
|
137
|
56.8
|
Neutral
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
5
|
6
|
20
|
8.3
|
Total
|
40
|
60
|
70
|
50
|
21
|
241
|
100
|