Descriptive statistics and correlations between variables
The means and zero-order correlation coefficients for the variables are shown in Table 2. Overall, the means of the variables indicated that respondents had a low risk perception of COVID-19 (M = 3.59) and risk beliefs towards being outside (M = 1.57). Respondents had moderate psychological stress (M = 4.67) and positive guarding behaviours for being outside (M = 6.63). Respondents always continued to follow the trend of the epidemic and their reported concern of COVID-19 information acquisition was high (M = 6.26). In addition, the respondents usually discussed the development of the epidemic with people, and their reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing were relatively high (M = 5.41). Respondents tended to cancel outings (M = 6.41) and refuse visitors (M = 5.87) during the epidemic, which means that respondents tended to maintain social distance from others. With respect to respondents’ panic buying, when they saw or heard of a rise in the number of confirmed cases, they would not panic-purchase medical protective goods (M = 3.95) but would panic-purchase food and supplies (M = 4.58).
In terms of the correlations between variables, we found that (see Table 2) the perceived risk of COVID-19 was significantly correlated with psychological stress (r = 0.282, p < 0.01) and panic buying (i.e., masks and food) (r varied from 0.208 to 0.301, p < 0.01). Respondents’ psychological stress was significantly correlated with reported concerns of COVID-19 (i.e., information acquisition and information sharing) (r varied from 0.254 to 0.262, p < 0.01), reported SD of cancelled outings (r = 0.164, p < 0.05) and panic buying (i.e., masks and food) (r varied from 0.417 to 0.507, p < 0.01). Respondents’ risk beliefs towards being outside had significantly negative correlations with guarding behaviours for being outside (r = -0.379, p < 0.01), reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquiring (r = -0.230, p < 0.01), reported SD of cancelled outings (r = -0.287, p < 0.01) and reported SD of refusing visitors (r = -0.185, p < 0.05). Respondents’ guarding behaviours for being outside were significantly correlated with reported concerns of COVID-19 (i.e., information acquisition and information sharing) (r varied from 0.313 to 0.595, p < 0.01) and reported SD (i.e., cancelled outings and refusing visitors) (r varied from 0.456 to 0.693, p < 0.01). Regarding the reported concerns of COVID-19, information acquisition was significantly correlated with information sharing (r = 0.456, p < 0.01). Reported concerns of COVID-19 (i.e., information acquisition and information sharing) were significantly correlated with reported SD (i.e., cancelled outings and refusing visitors) (r varied from 0.245 to 0.652, p < 0.01). Reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing had significant correlations with panic buying of food (r = 0.176, p < 0.05). Reported SD of cancelled outings was significantly correlated with reported SD of refusing visitors (r = 0.484, p < 0.01) and panic buying of food (r = 0.149, p < 0.05). Reported SD of refusing visitors was significantly correlated with panic buying of food (r = 0.190, p < 0.01). Panic buying of masks was significantly correlated with panic buying of food (r = 0.446, p < 0.01). Furthermore, respondents’ gender was significantly correlated with reported SD of cancelling outings (r = 0.179, p < 0.05). Respondents’ age group had a significantly negative correlation with perceived risk of COVID-19 (r = -0.265, p < 0.01), reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing (r = -0.189, p < 0.01) and panic buying of food (r = -0.187, p < 0.01). Respondents’ education group was significantly correlated with perceived risk of COVID-19 (r = 0.221, p < 0.01), risk beliefs towards being outside (r = -0.182, p < 0.05), guarding behaviours for being outside (r = 0.184, p < 0.05), reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing (r = 0.311, p < 0.01), reported SD of cancelled outings (r = 0.190, p < 0.01) and panic buying of food (r = 0.154, p < 0.05).
Difference tests of the study variables
To test whether there were differences in the study variables between different gender groups, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The results showed that significant differences existed in the reported SD of cancelling outings (p = 0.014) between different gender groups. Females were more likely to cancel outings during the epidemic than males. No significant effects of gender were found for other variables in this study.
Differences between the two different age groups in the study variables were subjected to one-way ANOVA. The results showed that there were significant differences in the perceived risk of COVID-19 (p = 0.000), reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing (p = 0.009) and panic buying of food (p = 0.010) between the two different age groups. Fig. 1 indicates that younger respondents had a higher risk perception of COVID-19 (p = 0.000) than older respondents. Younger respondents were more likely to discuss the development of the epidemic with others (p = 0.009) and stock up on food and supplies under the shock of the epidemic (p = 0.010). With respect to the variables of psychological stress and panic buying of masks, younger respondents’ scores were higher than the older group, but the differences were not significant. With regard to the variables of risk beliefs towards being outside and reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition, the older respondents had a higher score than younger respondents, but the differences were not significant. In addition, the different age groups of the respondents had relatively similar scores in guarding behaviours for being outside, reported SD of cancelling outings and reported SD of refusing visitors.
Differences between the two different education groups in the study variables were subjected to a one-way ANOVA. We found that (see Fig. 2) respondents with a higher education level had a higher risk perception of COVID-19 (p = 0.002) and a lower risk belief towards being outside (p = 0.012). The differences between the two education groups in guarding behaviours for being outside (p = 0.011), reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing (p = 0.000), reported SD of cancelled outings (p = 0.009) and panic buying of food (p = 0.035) were significantly different, and the scores of the respondents with higher education level were higher. With respect to psychological stress, reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition, reported SD of refusing visitors and panic buying of masks, the scores of the respondents with higher education level were higher, but there were no significant differences between the two different education groups in the four variables.
With regard to differences between the two correlated behaviours in reported concerns COVID-19, a repeated measure ANOVA test with a method of main effect comparison showed the order of scores of “information acquisition” (M = 6.26) > “information sharing” (M = 5.41), F (1, 188) = 6137.437, p < 0.001. The correlated behaviours in reported SD and panic buying were also tested by this kind of analysis and showed the order of reported SD of “cancelled outings” (M = 6.41) > “refusing visitors” (M = 5.87), F (1, 188) = 8696.983, p < 0.001, and panic buying of “food” (M = 4.58) > “masks” (M = 3.95), F (1, 188) = 1574.963, p < 0.001.
Predictors of respondents’ six behavioural variables: regression analyses
Zero-order correlations and a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to analyse the relationships between respondents’ behavioural variables and psychological variables. Regarding respondents reported social distancing of cancelled outings, the variables of psychological stress, risk beliefs towards being outside and guarding behaviours for being outside were well correlated with respondents’ self-reported engagements. To test the predictive effects, a three-step hierarchical regression analysis was performed using demographic measures, perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress, risk beliefs towards being outside and guarding behaviours for being outside. The demographics (i.e., gender, age group, and education) were entered in Step 1, respondents’ perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress were added in Step 2, and the respondents’ risk beliefs towards being outside and guarding behaviours for being outside were added in Step 3. The results showed that (see Table 3), in Step 1, demographics explained 7.5% of the variance in respondents’ reported SD of cancelled outings, and the regression model was significant (F (3, 185) = 5.013, p < 0.01). Gender and education emerged as stronger predictors for respondents’ reported SD of cancelled outings. In Step 2, the variables of perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress had no significant predictive effects on respondents’ reported SD of cancelling outings. In Step 3, the addition of respondents’ risk beliefs towards being outside and guarding behaviours for being outside to the regression model resulted in a substantial increase to 41.7% of the variance in respondents’ reported SD of cancelled outings (R2 = 0.514, Fchange (2, 181) = 77.670, p < 0.001), with respondents’ guarding behaviours for being outside emerging as a significant predictor.
As displayed in Table 2, respondents’ perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress were partly correlated with reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition, reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing, reported SD of refusing visitors, panic buying of masks and panic buying of food. To test the predictive effects on respondents’ reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition, reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing, panic buying of masks, panic buying of food and reported SD of refusing visitors, a two-step hierarchical regression analysis was performed using demographic measures, perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress. For each kind of behavioural variable, the demographics (i.e., gender, age group, and education) were entered in Step 1, and the respondents’ perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress were added in Step 2. By controlling for the influence of other variables, this approach allowed us to assess the predictive utility of each type of predictor. The results are summarized in Table 4. In Step 1, demographics explained less than 9.9% of the variance in reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition, reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing and panic buying of food, and the regression models were significant (F (3, 185) ≦ 6.812, p < 0.05). Age group and education emerged as stronger predictors for respondents’ reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquiring, and education emerged as a stronger predictor for respondents’ reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing. Demographics only explained less than 2.3% of the variance in panic buying of masks and reported SD of refusing visitors, and the regression models were not significant (F (3, 185) ≤ 1.446, p > 0.05). In Step 2, the variables of perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress, when added to the regression equations, explained statistically significant increments of 5.3% -26.7% of the variance in reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquiring, concerns of COVID-19 information sharing, panic buying of masks and panic buying of food (Fchange (2, 183) ≥ 5.759, p < 0.01). Psychological stress emerged as a stronger predictor, especially for panic buying behaviours. Furthermore, perceived risk of COVID-19 had a significant predictive effect on panic buying of masks. Meanwhile, the variables of perceived risk of COVID-19 and psychological stress had no significant predictive effects on respondents’ reported SD of refusing visitors.
As shown in Table 2, the variables of concern of COVID-19 information sharing and information acquisition were well correlated with reported social distancing of refusing visitors and cancelling outings, respectively. Reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing were significantly correlated with panic buying of food. To investigate the predictive influence of reported concerns of COVID-19 on panic buying and reported social distancing, a two-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted. The variable of reported concern of COVID-19 information sharing was entered in Step 1, and reported concern of COVID-19 information acquisition was added in Step 2. The results showed that (see Table 5), in Step 1, reported concern of COVID-19 information sharing was a stronger predictor for panic buying of food (R2 = 0.031, Fchange (1, 187) = 5.971, p < 0.05). Reported concern of COVID-19 information sharing emerged as a stronger predictor for reported social distancing of refusing visitors (R2 = 0.060, Fchange (1, 187) = 11.964, p < 0.01) and cancelled outings (R2 = 0.105, Fchange (1, 187) = 21.974, p < 0.001), but the predictive effects were not significant when the variable of reported concern of COVID-19 information acquisition was added to the regression equations. Reported concern of COVID-19 information sharing had no significant predictive effect on panic buying of masks. In Step 2, the variable of reported concern of COVID-19 information acquiring, when added to the regression equations, explained statistically significant increments of 17.6% - 32.1% of the variance in reported social distancing of refusing visitors and cancelling outings (Fchange (1, 186) ≥ 42.818, p < 0.001). Meanwhile, reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition had no significant predictive effects on panic buying of masks or food.
In summary, the contribution of psychological stress was apparent, and it emerged as a very strong predictor of predicting reported concerns of COVID-19 and panic buying. Guarding behaviours for being outside also had a significant predictive effect on respondents’ reported SD of cancelling outings. In addition, the perceived risk of COVID-19 had a significant predictive effect on panic buying of masks. Demographic parameters had partially predictive influences on reported concerns of COVID-19 and reported SD of cancelling outings. Reported concerns of COVID-19 information sharing was a stronger predictor for panic buying of food, reported social distancing of refusing visitors and cancelling outings. Meanwhile, reported concerns of COVID-19 information acquisition had significant predictive effects on reported social distancing of refusing visitors and cancelling outings.