Phylogenetic status of Tanymastix stagnalis (Linnaeus 1758) (Crustacea Branchiopoda) from Algeria, with some ecological notes

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4082987/v1

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Phylogenetic status of Tanymastix stagnalis (Linnaeus 1758) (Crustacea Branchiopoda) from Algeria, with some ecological notes

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4082987/v1

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In this study, a molecular analysis, based on the comparison of mtDNA sequences of cytochrome oxidase I (COI) of the species Tanymastix stagnalis Linnaeus, 1758 from Algeria, with other available sequences, was performed. Phylogenetic analysis clarified the status of this species and its phylogenetic links between European and North African populations. This analysis clearly demonstrated that the only two populations from Algeria (Reghaïa and El Frine) are included within European sub-clad comprising northern Spain, France, northern Italy and Germany. We also provided ecological data over a decade of monitoring, which revealed that the population of T. stagnalis from El-Frine is stable and active during winter and spring. It lives in sandy pools and prefers low temperatures and conductivity (11.9 ± 2.2°C, 0.26 ± 0.15 mS.cm^− 1, respectively). The mean density of its individuals was 1.43 ± 3.44 ind.L^− 1, with a cyst-bank of 0.35 ± 0.14 egg.cm^− 3. The cohabitation of T. stagnalis with the Decapoda Atyaephyra desmaresti (Millet 1831) in the El-Frine ponds is reported for the first time. Conservation measures should be undertaken to protect this endangered species in North Africa.

Fairy shrimps. molecular taxonomy. North Africa. wetlands. conservation

Algeria is a vast country with various dry climates that are extremely favorable to large branchiopods. Until now, 25 species, including 17 Anostraca, 4 Notostraca and 4 Spinicaudata, are listed (Chergui et al. 2024). However, there is still much work to realize on the taxonomy and the ecology of these crustaceans. Among the Anostraca, the genus Tanymastix Simon 1886 is still little studied in Algeria. It comprises four species, of which Tanymastix stagnalis (Linnaeus 1758) is the most widespread. This species was originally described from Uppsala in Sweden. It was then reported several times in France, in the south of Paris and in Hungary (Simon 1886) and later in many other European countries, where it has a wide distribution with often distant localities reaching as far north as Norway and from Portugal or Ireland to Russia (Gurney 1914; Ardo 1947; Young 1976; Engdal 1978; Vekhov 1991; Brtek and Thiéry 1995; Rabet 2001; Arukwe and Langeland 2013). Outside Europe, this species has been recorded only in Algeria in two regions Réghaia (province of Algiers) and El Frine (El-Tarf province) (Gauthier 1928), where it is still recorded (Samraoui and Dumont 2002; Samraoui et al. 2006; Chergui et al. 2023). Despite sampling campaigns all around the country in the framework of several recent investigations on Algerian crustacean biodiversity, this species has not been collected yet elsewhere (Samraoui and Dumont 2002; Samraoui et al. 2006; Ghaouaci et al. 2017,2018; Beladjal and Amarouayache 2023; Boumendjel al. 2023; Menail et al. 2023; Chergui et al. 2024).

The genus Tanymastix includes 3 other species with a much more limited distribution. In Morocco, it is represented by T. affinis Daday 1910, distributed on the western Atlantic coasts and the Atlas (Thiéry 1987; Van den Broeck et al. 2015). T. motasi Orghidan 1945 is limited to the Balkans. It was initially described from Giurgiu Region, south of Bucharest in Rumania, and more recently, found in Macedonia (Petkovski 1995). The third species is T. stellae Cottarelli 1967, which was described from Sardinia. However, the status of this species is unclear because the type locality would have been destroyed (Ketmaier et al. 2005). It could constitute a morphological variant of T. stagnalis.

The first sequence from T. stagnalis was 18S from Algeria (without specifying locality) in order to provide an analysis at the family level (Weekers et al. 2002). The study was carried out with the sequencing of the COI gene of numerous populations (Ketmaier et al. 2005; Rodriguez Flores et al. 2019). These recent works made it possible to propose a scenario on the origin of the species. T. stagnalis is believed to have originated in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and has spread throughout Europe. In Morocco, T. affinis, although geographically close, is genetically well differentiated and represents clearly another species (Rodriguez Flores et al. 2019).

Tanymastix stagnalis has a fairly short life cycle and biological patterns have only been studied in a few localities in Europe and the ecological preferences are not yet well understood (Nourisson and Aguesse 1961; Garreau de Loubresse 1965; Al Tikrity 1979; Grainger 1981, 1991; Maier and Tessenow 1983; Freiner and Grüttner 1984; Al Tikrity and Grainger 1990; Mura and Zarattini 2000; Rabet 2001; Thiéry 2017). In the present work, we seek first to molecularly identify Algerian populations. The objective is to present their phylogenetic position in relation to the Tanymastix populations already sequenced and to propose a scenario explaining the origin of the Algerian populations. In particular, it will be interesting to see how these populations are placed in relation to the hypothesized scenario of the Iberian origin of T. stagnalis proposed by Rodriguez Flores et al. (2019). Furthermore, to better understand the ecology of this species in Algeria, we studied El-Frine population, since the pools of Réghaia were dried or deprived of T. stagnalis during our visits. El-Frine pools are located on the edge of Oubeira Lake in El-Kala National Park. This lake constituted with El-Mellah and Tonga a single large lake formed at the beginning of the quaternary and was then isolated in the Neopleistocene. Oubeira Lake is surrounded by clay-sandstone hillsides, covered with forests (Joleaud 1936). Its southeastern banks of El-Frine are constituted by peanut fields, flooded between autumn and spring. The results obtained from this study will make it possible to verify the taxonomic status of Algerian Tanymstix species and to classify it according to IUCN red-list criteria for future conservation.

Description of study areas

The two known populations of Tanymastix stagnalis of Algeria are from pools of Réghaia (Algiers) and El-Frine (El-Tarf). Both regions are close to the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1a, b). The temporary freshwater pond of Réghaïa (city El Kerrouche) is located in a forest near the eastern coast of Algiers, about 3 km east of Réghaia Lake (36°44′29.80"N, 3°22′6.73"E, alt. 25 m a.s.l.). This forest has sandy and flat soil, slightly marly (Gauthier 1928). The pool has an oval shape and an area of approximately 300 m², with a maximum depth of 0.5 m. The climate of Réghaïa is Mediterranean, with mild, humid winters and hot and dry summers. The average annual temperature is 18.5°C, with moderate seasonal and daily variations. Precipitations are concentrated between October and April, with an annual average of 600 mm.

El-Frine pools are flooded peanut fields on flatbeds, with sandy soil, located in El-Tarf district, at the southeastern edge of Oubeira Lake (36 ° 50'17.35 "N 08 ° 25'19.45" E, alt. 26 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 1). The zone, about 3 km far from Mediterranean shore, is characterized by humid temperate climate and a relatively high rainfall rates (up to 900 mm), as well as by rugged reliefs and sandy soils which are influenced by the phases of flooding and drainage. The hydroperiod starts between mid-September, followed by a variable period during which the temporary pools are flooded until mid-May or completely dried up depending on the meteorological conditions of the year. The coldest months are December and January and the hottest are July and August, with average air temperature varying between 6°C and 33°C.

Rearing and sampling methods

Réghaia pools have been visited in August 2016 (BL) and in January 2021 (HA and AM). One pool was with water in 2021, but Tanymastix stagnalis was completely absent, the calanoid copepod Hemidiaptomus ingens (Gurney 1909) was the only species present. A sample of dried mud has been collected for rearing. Specimens of T. stagnalis were raised in the laboratory. An amount of 200 g dry sediment was incubated in 20 L container full of distilled water under temperatures between 12 and 16°C in natural day/night light cycle, with continuous aeration. They were fed on microorganisms raised from the sediment. Once specimens were adults, they were preserved in 96% ethanol, prior to molecular analyses and conserved in the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle of Paris (Table 1) and in the Marine Bioresources laboratory’ collections (Annaba University).

Table 1

List of *T. stagnalis* from Algeria present at the Paris MNHN (France), including MNHN accession number, sampling locality, sampling date, Collector, wild/breeding and study
N° accession MNHN	Locality	Collection date	Taxon	Collector	Wild/ Breeding	Study
MNHN-IU-2021-8667	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8668	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8669	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8670	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8671	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8672	Reghaia, Algeria	09/01/2017	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8673	Reghaia, Algeria	07/05/2022	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	morphological
MNHN-IU-2021-8674	Reghaia, Algeria	15/08/2019	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	morphological
MNHN-IU-2021-8675	Reghaia, Algeria	22/04/2021	T. stagnalis	L. Boumendjel	B	morphological
MNHN-IU-2021-8676	El Frine, El Tarf, Algeria	10/12/2015	T. stagnalis	M. Amarouayache	W	Genetic
MNHN-IU-2021-8677	El Frine, El Tarf, Algeria	10/12/2015	T. stagnalis	M. Amarouayache	W	Genetic

Sampling was carried out in El Frine ponds several times during the hydroperiods between 2014 and 2024. Physical and chemical variables (water and air temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen and maximum water depth) were measured using a Hanna multiparameter (HI9829) and a graduated bar. According to water column thickness as well as population density, a water volume, ranging between 6 L and 36 L was filtered through a sieve of 125 µm. The collected animals were fixed either in 96% ethanol, for molecular analyses or in 4% formalin for counting individuals. Several samples of soil were collected when the pools were dried and stocked for egg bank study.

DNA extraction, PCR amplification and sequencing

Genomic DNA from two and 6 adult specimens respectively from El Tarf and Réghaïa was extracted from thoracic legs using the NucleoSpin® 96 Tissue kit. After homogenization, the tissues were digested overnight at 65°C in a volume of 2.5 ml of BP (Proteinase Buffer) Proteinase K, and 18 ml of T1, 200 µL for each sample. To complete the lysis, buffers (BQ1, BW, B5 and BE) were prepared in a tray and placed in the Eppendorf epMotion 5075 robots with the DNA sample. A fragment of the mtDNA gene encoding cytochrome oxidase subunit I (mtDNA COI) was amplified using the universal primers LCO1490 and HCO2198 described by Folmer (Folmer et al. 1994). The PCR reaction was carried out on a Bio-Rad C1000 Touch thermal cycler for a total volume of 20 µl (see Boumendjel et al. 2023). Each reaction contained the following composition: 12.44 µl (H₂O), 2 µl (Taq10x coralLoad buffer), 1 µl DMSO (DiMethyl Sulfoxide), 1 µl BSA (Bovine Albumin Serum), 0.8 µl dNTP (DeoxyNucleotide TriPhosphate), 0.32 µl (HCO2198), 0.32 µl (LCO1490), 0.12 µl of Taq (recombinant DNA polymerase, Quiagen) and 2 µl of DNA. Amplification consisted of an initial denaturation step at 94°C for 5 min followed by 40 cycles at 94°C for 30 s, 50°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 90 s, followed by a final extension at 72°C for 8 minutes. After PCR, 3 µl of each PCR product was separated by electrophoresis on a 2% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide at 100 V for 20 m and visualized with a UV transilluminator. The PCR products, which showed a clear, single band of the correct expected length, were sent for sequencing according to the method of Sanger et al. (1977) to the sequencing service company "Eurofins" MWG Operon (Germany). They were sequenced in both directions using the forward and reverse primers (LCO1490 and HCO2198) that we provided to the company. The chromatograms were imported and edited with Chromas version 2.6.4. Molecular investigations were carried out at the National Museum of Natural History “Service de Systématique Moléculaire” (SSM) in Paris.

Phylogenetic analyses

Tanymastix COI sequences representative of all available species and major evolutionary lineages in Europe and North Africa (Ketmaier et al. 2005; Rodríguez et al. 2019) have been downloaded from GenBank and associated with obtained sequences for the analyzes (see GenBank accession numbers in Table 1). Sequences were edited and aligned with multiple sequences alignment programs by CLUSTALW (Thompson et al. 1994) in Geneious 11 and collapsed into haplotypes prior to phylogenetic analysis. Tanymastix affinis (accession number MN190221) from Ouezanne (Morocco) was used as an out-group (see Rodríguez Flores et al. 2019). We checked that no codon stop was present in the protein coding sequence. No duplication(s), deletion(s) or multiple mutation(s) have been identified. Best-fitting DNA substitution models were assessed for each codon without partition or for each codon position using Partition Finder following the Bayesian Information criterion (BIC) (Lanfear et al. 2017).

A phylogenetic tree was constructed on the alignment of haplotypes by applying the Neighbor joining (NJ) implanted in the Geneious 11.1.5 Tree Builder software, with a 1000 replicas bootstraps and HKY Genetic distance model and using the Maximum likelihood (ML) analyses with RAxML version 8.2.10 were run under the GTR model and a 1000 replicas bootstraps. A Bayesian tree was constructed using Mr Bayes package version 3.1.2 by running the General Time-Reversible with HKY + G, SYM + G and F81models for each codon positions and 10 000 000 generations.

Ecological study

Density of Tanymastix stagnalis from El Frine ponds (number of individuals per litre), including different developing stages (nauplii, juveniles and adults), as well as sex-ratio were determined (see Amarouayache et al. 2010). Differences between the values of limnological parameters during the presence and absence of T. stagnalis were analyzed using a paired t-test of Student and illustrated in boxplots (IBM SPSS Statistics v26 software). In laboratory, resting eggs were isolated from sediment prior to egg-bank determination. Several amounts of 100 g of soil samples from different ponds were washed with fresh water through three sieves of decreasing mesh size: 1000 µm, 400 µm and 125 µm. Resting eggs of T. stagnalis were retained on the 125 µm mesh sieve, while sediment particles and debris were retained on sieves of larger mesh vacuum (modified from Sorgeloos et al. 1986). They were separated from other impurities that remained stuck on the chorion, using ultrasonic cleaner according to Rochon et al. (1999) protocol. The eggs were transferred in a beaker containing 10 ml of distilled water. The mixture water + eggs was exposed to the ultrasonic cleaner for 30 seconds and centrifuged at 3000 rpm. Eggs were recovered in a Dollfuss curve and those of T. stagnalis, easily distinguished by their lenticular shape, were counted under a binocular magnifier. The number of eggs contained in 100 g of sediment was related to the density of 1.355 g.cm^− 3 of El-Frine sediment and converted into eggs number per cm^− 3. Associated crustacean fauna was identified in both ecosystems/microcosm (El-Frine and Réghaia) using identification keys of Dussart (1967) for copepods, Alonso (1996) for cladocerans and Meisch (2000) for ostracods.

Genetic study

We obtained from the genetic analyses 4 sequences representing 3 new haplotypes. The final alignment included a total of 40 haplotypes of 585 pb. All haplotypes are listed in Table 2. Phylogenetic analyses identified 7 distinct evolutionary lineages of Tanymastix stagnalis with a high support in all methods (NJ, ML, BA) (Fig. 2). Lineage A includes different populations of T. stagnalis from southern Iberian Peninsula Puerto de Santa María, Mazagón and Coria del Rio; lineage B groups two populations from province of Toledo, in central Spain; lineage C includes populations from the Central and Northern Iberian Plateau (Sierra Guadarrama, La Cabrera, El Losar del Barco, Valdemaqueda, Llano de Olmedo); lineage D consists on a single population from the Membrio in Western Iberian Peninsula; lineage E incorporates four subclades. E1 includes the population from Southern Plateau of Spain (Las Virtudes), E2 emerged different populations of T. stagnalis from North France (Fontainebleau), East Germany (Rühstädt), North Algeria (Réghaïa and El Frine), Italy (Val Cedra and Gran Paradiso) and Northeastern Spain (San Climent Sescebes); E3 is shared between haplotypes from Central Italy (Piani di Fugno, Lago dell’Orso, Forca Canapine, Trollheimen) and haplotypes from central Norway (Trollheimen); E4 includes a haplotype from Fuente Obejuna in the south of Spain; lineage F emerged all haplotypes from Corsica, Sardinia and Capraia Island and lineage G incorporates southern Portuguese specimens.

Table 2

GenBank accession number, code Haplotype, locations, corresponding latitude and longitude, reference for populations of *T. stagnalis* included in the study
N°.accession	Code Haplotype	lineage	Locality	Latitude	Longitude	References
MN190186	103419	C	La Cabrera, Madrid, Spain	41°51'33.1"N	3°37'35.6"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190190	103415			41°51'33.1"N	3°37'35.6"W
MN190202	103431			40°51'35.9"N	3°37'39.1"W
MN190203	103432			40°51'26.0"N	3°37'38.7"W
MN190191	103420	C	El Losar del Barco, Avila, Spain	40°24'41.1"N	5°32'19.3"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190217	103446	C	Llano de Olmedo, Valladolid, Spain	41°16'06.7"N	4°36'14.5"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190209	103438	C	Valdemaqueda, Madrid, Spain	40°29'39.3"N	4°18'59.4"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190211	103440	C	Valdemaqueda, Madrid, Spain	40°29'39.3"N	4°18'59.4"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190193	103422	D	Membrio, Caceres, Spain	39°33'44.6"N	7°04'32.1"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190187	103418	A	Puerto de Santa María, Cadiz, Spain	36°32'39.6"N	6°12'18.3"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190189	103416	A	Puerto de Santa María, Cadiz, Spain	36°32'39.6"N	6°12'18.3"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190201	103430	A	Mazagón, Huelva, Spain	37°10'09.0"N	6°47'26.5"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190218	103447	A	Moguer, Huelva, Spain	37°12'05.4"N	6°45'48.7"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190204	103433	A	Coria del Rio, Sevilla, Spain	37°14'32.2"N	5°59'43.5"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190196	103425	B	Talavera de la Reina, Toledo, Spain	39°56'53.1"N	4°56'40.9"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190206	103435	B	Calera y Chozas, Toledo, Spain	39°55'39.8"N	5°01'12.9"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190199	103428	E2	Sant Climent Sescebes, Girona, Spain	42°23'09.9"N	2°57'33.8"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190195	103424	E1	Las Virtudes, Ciudad Real, Spain	38°34'04.2"N	3°24'40.7"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190197	103426	E4	Fuente Obejuna, Córdoba, Spain	38°16'52.6"N	5°25'02.8"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190198	103427	E4	Fuente Obejuna, Córdoba, Spain	38°16'52.6"N	5°25'02.8"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190212	103441	G	Lagõa da Nave A, Faro, Portugal	37°13'07.0"N	8°02'53.9"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190213	103442	G	Lagõa da Nave A, Faro, Portugal	37°13'07.0"N	8°02'53.9"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190214	103443	G	Lagõa da Nave B, Faro, Portugal	37°13'09.1"N	8°02'58.5"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
MN190215	103444	G	Lagõa da Nave B, Faro, Portugal	37°13'09.1"N	8°02'58.5"W	Rodriguez et al. (2019)
AY555256	GRP	E2	Gran Paradiso, Aosta, Italy	-	-	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555253	BER	E2	Rühstädt, Berlin, Germany	-	-	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555254	FON	E2	Fontainebleau, Paris, France	48°26'30"N	2°40'7"E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555255	SPG	C	Sierra Guadarrama, Madrid, Spain	-	-	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555257	VCE	E2	Val Cedra, Parma, Italy	44°22′09″N	10°05′28″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555252	NVR	E3	Trollheimen, Trondheim, Norway	-	-
AY555259	RAC	-	Piano di Raccollo, Abruzzo, Italy	42°23′37″N	13°39′27″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555258	FUG	E3	Piani di Fugno, Abruzzo, Italy	42°22′09″N	13°27′35″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555260	LOR	E3	Lago dell’Orso, Abruzzo, Italy	42°24′21″N	13°14′47″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555261	FOC	E3	Forca Canapine, Rieti, Italy	42°45′07″N	13°12′01″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555264	CAR	-	Carloforte, Sardinia, Italy	-	-	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555262	COR	F	Bonifacio, South Corsica, France	41°22′49″N	9°12′43″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555263	ROM	F	Romazzino, Sardinia, Italy	41°05′22″N	9°33′47″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
AY555265	CAP	F	Capraia Island, Toscana, Italy	43°02′17″N	9°49′35″E	Ketmaier et al. (2005)
-	ELF	E2	El Frine, El Tarf, Algeria	36°49'46.44"N	08°25'16.01"E	This study
-	BOU1	E2	Boudouaou, Reghaïa, Algeria	36°44'29.80"N	3°22'6.73"E	This study
-	BOU2	E2	Boudouaou, Reghaïa, Algeria	36°44'29.80"N	3°22'6.73"E	This study

Ecological notes

In El Frine, the ponds are flooded from October to April, then dry completely. When Tanymastix stagnalis was present, the ponds depth was between 7 and 50 cm, water temperature between 7.2 and 16.8°C, pH between 6.3 and 9.6, conductivity between 0.08 and 0.8 mS.cm^− 1and dissolved oxygen between 2.5 and 11.2 ppm. Overall, T. stagnalis was present during the monitoring in hydroperiods between 2014 and 2024 from November to March (max.), with maximum density of 23.66 ind.L^− 1 observed in December, including adults and young stages. In Fig. 3, box-plots illustrate limnological preferences of T. stagnalis obtained from 69 observations. The paired t-test of Student showed significant differences for all the parameters when T. stagnalis was present or absent (conductivity: t= -5.693, p = 0.0001; temperature : t = -2.664, p = 0.01; pH : t= -5.144, p = 0.0001; dissolved oxygen : t = 2.345, p = 0.02), except for depth (t = 0.311, p = 0.76). The Pearson correlation was not significant for all the respective parameter (Pearson r = 0.16, p = 0.92; r = 0.134, p = 0.39; r = 0.28, p = 0.62; r = 0.13, p = 0.93).

Adults males and females were often present during our visits and mean sex-ratio was of 1.84 ± 1.11. Mean number of resting eggs contained in soil samples was of 0.35 ± 0.14 eggs.cm^− 3. Table 3 summarizes physico-chemical and bio-ecological data of T. stagnalis from El-Frine. Associated crustacean fauna was essentially represented by the decapod Atyaephyra desmaresti (Millet 1831), the notostracan Lepidurus apus lubbocki (Brauer 1873), the ostracods Eucypris virens (Jurine 1820) and Cypris bispinosa Lucas 1849, the cladocerans Ceriodaphnia quadrangula (O.F. Müller 1785), C. reticulata (Jurine 1820), Simocephalus vetulus (O.F. Müller 1776), Daphnia magna Straus 1820, Moina brachiata (Jurine 1820), Macrothrix hirsuticornis Norman and Brady 1867 and Chydorus sphaericus (O. F. Müller 1776) and non-identified copepods. The anostracan Chirocephalus salinus Daday 1913 co-occurred with T. stagnalis only in dishes communicating with surrounding ponds inhabited by this species.

Table 3

Physico-chemical and bio-ecological data on *T. stagnalis* from El-Frine
Parameter	pH	Conductivity (mS.cm^− 1)	Temperature (°C)	Dissolved oxygen (ppm)	Depth (cm)	Density (ind.L^− 1)	Sex-ratio	Cysts Bank (eggs.cm^− 3)
Minimum	6.3	0.08	7.2	2.5	7	0.02	0.33	0.19
Maximum	9.6	0.78	16.8	11.2	50	23.66	4.4	0.68
Mean ± Sd	7.8 ± 0.8	0.26 ± 0.15	11.9 ± 2.2	5.75 ± 2.23	29.2 ± 12.3	1.43 ± 3.44	1.84 ± 1.11	0.35 ± 0.14

The Réghaia mud produced several crustacean species with T. stagnalis, among them, Chirocephalus algeriensis Boumendjel, Amarouayache, Bonillo, Sorba, Bagni and Rabet, 2023, L. apus lubbocki and the copepod Hemidiaptomus ingens (Gurney 1909), which appeared later in the rearing medium.

Despite local anthropological modifications since one century, T. stagnalis, identified morphologically by Gauthier (1928) in northern Algeria still exist today. El-Frine and Réghaia are the only populations recorded to date. The genus Tanymastix has a discontinuous distribution area, it is extremely rare in Algeria, and absent from Tunisia (Marrone et al. 2016). Its occurrence is also interrupted in space in Europe (Brtek 1962; Brtek and Thiéry 1995; Brendonck et al. 2017; Thiéry 2017; Thiéry et al. 2019) and in a way, the distribution in Algeria is quite similar to that in Europe. However, in the case of Algeria, part of the discontinuity with European populations is linked to the presence of the Mediterranean Sea. This situation could suggest several scenarios on the evolution of the genus Tanymastix. Algerian populations could formerly have been separated from the European and Moroccan populations and constitute a separate species, an ancient population of T. stagnalis or a bad identified T. affinis populations which are the only other African populations of the genus (Daday 1910; Thiéry 1987; Van den Broeck et al. 2015). However, the phylogenetic analysis of the different populations of Tanymastix clearly demonstrates that populations from Algeria do not constitute an old distinct group and belongs without any context to T. stagnalis. This analysis confirms also the results of Rodríguez-Flores et al. (2019) where the Iberian Peninsula may have acted as a center of lineage accumulation with high genetic diversification between populations of T. stagnalis. According to these results, T. stagnalis species appears to have originated in the Iberian Peninsula and has colonized the rest of Europe, and more recently, the northern Algeria, while another species, T. affinis, occupied Morocco for a long time. More precisely, the Algerian populations are included in the E2 subclade, which has a large and patchy distribution through Europe, from North-Eastern Spain to Germany, with populations in France and North of Italy (Ketmaier et al. 2005; Rodriguez-Flores et al. 2019).

The strong connection between continental European and Algerian populations raises questions about dispersal methods for this genus and establishment capacity. The dispersal mechanisms of large branchiopods have been extensively documented. Studies have demonstrated that anostracans are passively scattered through their resting eggs from their habitats by various vectors such as mammals (Thiéry 1991), fishes (Beladjal et al. 2007), amphibians (Bohonak and Whiteman 1999) and insects (Beladjal and Martens 2009). Long distance colonization beyond the Mediterranean Sea implies other modes of propagation such as wind (Graham 2008), birds (Green et al. 2023) or even through human intervention (Waterkeyn et al. 2010). It should be noted that there are several bird migration roads which connect both sides of Mediterranean coasts and which can explain the colonization of Algeria by European populations rather than Moroccan (Fig. 4). However, the phylogenetical tree showed that T. stagnalis populations from Algeria are not connected with those of Corsica and Sardinia, despite a smaller geographical distance.

In the genus Branchipus, cryptic species are also distributed on both continents and some of them have a wide, interrupted distribution in Algeria and France or Italy, which is somewhat similar to the situation of T. stagnalis (Lukić et al. 2019). On the other hand, if we compare Tanymastix with Chirocephalus of diaphanus group we observe: that the distribution of the genus Chirocephalus is more continuous, that there are many clades and that there is no clade/species in common between continental Europe (France/Spain/Italy) and Algeria (Renier et al. 2013; Boumendjel et al. 2018, 2023). The phylogeographic model of Rogers (2015) would also explain this different distribution between Chirocephalus spp. and T. stagnalis by considering that Chirocephalus spp. would be a more anciently installed group in Algeria than Tanymastix and this results in a different genetic structure with more localized lineages. Thus, the “Monopolization Hypothesis” would explain the strong priority effects of the founding population, which, after installation, would hinder the gene flow of newcomers occupying the same niche (Meester et al. 2002). In this case, the success of the European Tanymastix would be linked to the absence of indigenous Tanymatix species in the north of Algeria, and therefore, without local competition, they could easily establish themselves, while, in the case of Chirocephalus, the European populations/species are faced with very strong local competition and do not take root (Boumendjel et al. 2018, 2023). Furthermore, the presence of a consistent cystbank of the resident species, which are adapted to local conditions, limits the establishment of the immigrant species (Rogers et al. 2015).

Ecological notes

Algerian T. stagnalis populations live in arable sandy pools located in shady areas, with subhumid/humid climate close to the Mediterranean Coast. This type of habitats, especially ponds of costal sand bar, is very similar to that of Spanish populations (Olmo et al. 2015). T. stagnalis has been reported to live in temporary pools on sandy soil (Brtek and Thiéry 1995; Zarattini et al. 2017), karst systems (Mura and Zarattini 2000), rock pools (Rabet 1994; 2001), pools in forests (Gauthier 1928; Rabet 2001) and also in tree holes (Jocque et al. 2013). Ponds similar to those of El-Frine are numerous in the humid and sub-humid regions of the country but they harbour Chirocephalus salinus or C. sanhadjaensis (Samraoui and Dumont 2002; Boumendjel et al. 2018) rather than T. stagnalis.

The species develops in Algeria in winter until early spring. It was recorded from December to April at temperatures between 14°C and 22°C in Réghaia pools (Gauthier 1928). In Spain it develops in spring only (Olmo et al. 2015), while in Italy, it was found in spring after melting snow (Mura and Zarattini 2000) and also, in autumn after the first rains (Zarattini et al. 2017). In France, it occurs throughout the year in the rock pool of the Fontainbleau forest (Rabet 2001). In fact, T. stagnalis was first classified as a cold stenotherm species (Fløssner 1972, Grainger 1991), but Eder et al. (1997) suggested that the species should be considered a warm stenotherm, since it has been found at temperatures above 30°C in Austria. The large temperature interval of its occurrence between North-African and European climate suggests rather a eurytherm species. T. stagnalis prefers freshwater with very low conductivity. It was recorded with a maximum of 0.8 mS.cm^− 1 in El-Frine, which agrees with the results of several authors (Alonso 1985; Brtek and Thiéry 1995; Rabet 2001; Wood 2002; Cancela da Fonseca et al. 2008; Arukwe and Langeland 2013). Occasionally, a threshold of 7.29 mS.cm^− 1 has been registered for adults by Rueda-Sevilla et al. (2006), at the end of the hydroperiod. The pH in El-Frine was neutral to alkaline. Gauthier (1928), Rabet (2001) and Arukwe and Langeland (2013) reported pH around neutrality (6.5–7.2), probably because of punctual studies. The survey of Olmo et al. (2015) showed neutral to alkaline pH (up to 9), while that of Zarattini et al. (2017) resulted in acidic to alkaline pH, with a threshold of 4.9. Dissolved oxygen values are extreme, showing the wide range adaptation that can occur in small temporary pools (Brtek and Thiéry 1995; Boix 2002; Olmo et al. 2015).

Individual density of T. stagnalis of El Frine was close to that of Spanish or Italian populations. Olmo et al. (2015) reported densities comprised between 0.1 and 11 ind.L^− 1for Spain, while Zarattini et al. (2017) reported higher densities between 2 and 49 ind.L^− 1 for Italy. Vanschoenwinkel et al. (2013) considered a density of 2 ind.L^− 1 of Branchipus schaefferi from ponds on arable lands as high, which sounds a good establishment of the species, despite the agricultural pressure, including pesticide and fertilisation.

All developing stages were often present in El-Frine and males were dominant, as observed in other anostracans living in harsh conditions (Beladjal et al. 2003; Amarouayache et al. 2010). This male biased sex-ratio is encountered in several anostracan species; it favours the genes mixing to limit consanguinity in new generations and contribute to species persistence (Lievens et al. 2016). Egg bank is an important criterion to take into account in anostracan assessment (Brendonck and De Meester 2003). T. stagnalis resting eggs number of 0.35 eggs.cm^− 3 (35230 eggs.m^− 2) found in El-Frine is relatively weak, and comparable to that of the “inactive” Romanian population (Demeter and Peter 2011). It was lower than that of the Italian population (5.7 eggs.cm^− 3) and much lower than that of B. schaefferi (761.9 eggs.cm^− 3) (Zarattini et al. 2017). Thiéry (1997) reported more than 170000 eggs.m^− 2 for C. diaphanus in ditches at Rocheford du Gard in France.

The co-habitation of T. stagnalis with Atyaephyra desmaresti is reported for the first time. T. stagnalis was found to co-habit with two other large branchiopods, in several ponds of El-Frine region, Chirocephalus salinus (dishes) and rarely with Cyzicus tetracerus (Krynicki 1830) (Ghaouaci 2018). In Réghaia, T. stagnalis co-habits with C. algeriensis and L. apus lubboki, which appeared later in the rearing medium. In Southern Europe, T. stagnalis co-habits with two anostracans C. diaphanus and B. schaefferi in Southern France (Camargue) (Nourisson and Aguesse 1961) and in Italy (Mura 1991). Waterkeyn et al. (2011) showed that the Notostracan Triops cancriformis predates on T. stagnalis cysts. We notice that L. apus is also an active predator of T. stagnalis adults (unpublished data). The other associated crustacean fauna (copepods, cladocerans and ostracods) is quite similar in both regions, Réghaia and El-Frine (Gauthier 1928; Samraoui and Dumont 2002; Ghaouaci et al. 2017, 2018).

Ecological preferences of T. stagnalis are not clearly understood, and despite its broad environmental tolerance limits, the species do not appear to establish in close biotopes with similar physico-chemical and edaphic conditions (Grainer 1991). Other biological factors should curb establishment of the species in new habitat, by inhibiting egg hatching, among them, chemical compounds produced by resident species, such as faeces, micro-algae (Griffiths et al. 1991) or pheromones (Beladjal et al. 2007).

El-Frine population is stable, develops throughout the entire hydroperiod and several ponds confined there between Oubeira and Tonga Lakes harbour the species on a perimeter of 1.6 km², at least since works of Gauthier (1928). Considering the limited sites in Algeria and the risks of its disappearance due to global warming and anthropological pressure, the species should be preserved and assessed among the endangered species on the IUCN red-list.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the “Service de systématique moléculaire (SSM) of the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle Paris (France) for giving access to the facilities for carrying out molecular biology. We are also grateful to Dr. Bonillo Celine, Dr. Bouzid Slimane, Dr. Khelef Yahia and Dr. Beladjal Lynda for their help in field and laboratory and their advices and orientation.

Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest

Consent for publication
All authors have read and approved the final manuscript

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Phylogenetic status of Tanymastix stagnalis (Linnaeus 1758) (Crustacea Branchiopoda) from Algeria, with some ecological notes

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Materials and Methods

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Rearing and sampling methods

DNA extraction, PCR amplification and sequencing

Phylogenetic analyses

Ecological study

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Genetic study

Ecological notes

Discussion

Ecological notes

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Acknowledgements

References

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