5.1 Typologies of Cocoa production systems in the Colombian Amazonia
Our study results show that agroforestry systems, specially that use organic fertilization practices, along with prescribed post-harvest practices and irrigation, significantly affect on agricultural production in terms of increases yields and income. Agroforestry systems also favour peacebuilding by reducing conflict over use of natural resources and creating spaces for cooperation and dialogue when post-harvest practices, the quality of the beans and market linkages are strengthened. According to our research, cocoa is a crop that contributes to peace, which is congruent with the government policies supported in Colombia.
The effect of carbon sequestration potential (number of timber and non-timber trees) on land-based climate action mitigation was not evident since all the production typologies identified relate to agroforestry systems where the selected indicators did not identify variance across the typologies. Based on these results, we argue that sustainable cocoa production systems that come from agroforestry systems that employ organic fertilization can be encouraged for climate action, since they reduce the use of synthetic nitrogen for crops.
Other studies have found similar effects arising from cocoa production systems. For example, there is evidence that sustainable cocoa production can produce economic returns through higher cocoa yields 45,46. Sustainable cocoa production has the potential to enhance social cohesion and contribute to post-conflict peacebuilding and improvement of rural livelihoods 7,14. Although research has shown that cocoa is not a main driver of deforestation 47, unintended effects may arise if producers are practicing encroachment, which is a proximate cause of deforestation 48, thus countering or ruling out any positive contribution towards land-based climate mitigation. For instance, new evidence suggests that cocoa producers practice encroachment into the forest in Caquetá 42. If this is the case, then cocoa does not contribute to reducing but to increasing emissions, hence the need to introduce policies that prevent this practice. However, this effect is beyond the focus of this article and further research is required to assess it.
5.2 Implications for agricultural practices and policy
Based on our findings, we suggest that the outcomes in agricultural production, land-based climate mitigation action and peacebuilding can be improved through the implementation of a productive system that:
- Is generated from an agroforestry system, so it has the potential to capture carbon within the soil and to restore degraded lands. 49argue that there is an underexploited environmental benefit from agroforestry systems because of their carbon sequestration potential in multiple plant species. Agroforestry has the capacity to retain much higher quantities of carbon in above- and below-ground biomass than conventional crop and grazing land-use systems 17. Despite these benefits, if encroachment is practiced, forest pressure will be increased and mitigation effects will not be achieved 42,48.
- Incentivizes organic production to increase yields and reduce GHG emissions. Data collected in the study areas show the benefits of sustainable cocoa production systems, both in terms of improved soil quality and reduced GHG emissions per unit produced 42. However, studies that have explored the effect of organic production on climate mitigation have found mixed results, including a positive correlation with GHG emissions and the use of organic fertilizers 50.
- Enhance crop production for consumption and integrate activities associated with food security and nutrition within cocoa agroforestry systems. Establish local food markets and cooperative structures to connect farmers directly to consumers to improve their income for their diverse harvest 51. This strengthens food security and provides economic opportunities beyond cocoa. Promote nutrition education within farming communities, emphasizing the importance of balanced diets and diverse consumption patterns 52.
- Develops the required infrastructure for post-harvest activities, guarantees greater connectivity to associations, integration into markets and access to differentiated pricing for organic production, which must be supported by certifications. The need to improve post-harvest infrastructure has already been identified by the government, which recognizes that 95% of the cocoa subsector’s productive social base is characterized by small-scale producers. There is also heterogeneity in the implementation of post-harvest practices for cocoa beans. The infrastructure for fermenting and drying is deficient, as is training for producers to harness the high potential the Colombian cocoa bean, which is valued throughout the world for its particular flavour and aroma 32. Moreover, to promote the adoption of major organic cocoa agroforestry systems in the long term, market incentives need to be guaranteed 53, for example through premium markets, certification schemes and price stability.
Research by [19] posits that the adoption of agroforestry systems could help to increase sustainability in areas that exhibit financial difficulties and food insecurity. The wide adoption of agroforestry systems could help to enhance sustainable rural development. Therefore, it is important to identify the variables that explain the adoption benefits of agroforestry systems for scaling-up. This will facilitate the drafting of policies that aim to increase adoption rates at the local, regional or global level, to ensure a path towards sustainable development. Consequently, future research should explore the enabling conditions and adoption determinants of promising sustainable land-use systems, while taking into consideration the social and physical characteristics that affect them in conflict-related contexts. Despite the evidence of cocoa agroforestry systems’ multiple benefits, policymakers and project developers need to be aware of the unintended adverse land-use changes from scaling interventions 54.
In terms of policy, 15 formulates a proposed increase to 150,000 hectares in the agroforestry cocoa production system area in Colombia. However, based on the results of this study and other supporting literature, the authors suggest that the following be taken into consideration: (i) ideally, this action should be implemented in previously degraded areas; (ii) it must be ensured that the degraded areas will be restored prior to the implementation of agroforestry cocoa cultivation; (iii) sequential cropping for restoration of degraded areas could be a solution to restore degraded areas and food security 55; (iv) these new agroforestry cocoa areas should be prevented from arising from practices such as encroachment into the forest; and (v) organic production should be prioritized, as it helps to increase the mitigation potential of agroforestry systems 42.
Moreover, providing incentives for organic production, integrating activities associated with food security and nutrition within cocoa agroforestry systems, and supporting the development of necessary infrastructure for post-harvest activities are crucial factors that facilitate adherence to agroecological principles. These measures not only contribute to the enhancement of rural livelihoods and environmental sustainability but also ensure alignment with the forthcoming national agroecology plan proposed by the Colombian government.
Regarding the sustainability of these production systems, in 15, 80,000 hectares of cocoa agroforestry are proposed for renovation and rehabilitation. The authors recommend promoting different markets for the production of organic cocoa, as well as sustainable and environmentally-friendly systems that ensure a price stability, access to premium markets, certification schemes and generate incentives for the producer.
5.3 Limitations
Several attributes, such as productivity, stability, reliability, resilience, adaptability, equity and self-reliance define ‘sustainability’. But to the best of our knowledge, sustainability measures aiming to assess land systems have not been applied in a scenario where armed conflict and high deforestation or soil degradation rates overlap.
One potential limitation of our study is the sensitivity of principal component analysis (PCA) to outliers. We utilized robust statistical methods to identify and handle outliers. This involved assessing the distribution of the data and applying appropriate techniques to mitigate the influence of outliers on the results. Additionally, we implemented data cleaning procedures during the field data collection phase, including thorough verification and correction of information directly in the field.
However, we emphasize the importance of evaluating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within the framework. Despite our efforts, we encountered limitations in acquiring direct carbon emission data. Consequently, we opted to infer carbon emissions indirectly, utilizing metrics such as the quantity of timber and non-timber trees. It is important to note that obtaining such information is both costly and challenging, contributing to the complexity of our analysis.
We believe that, for conflict-affected areas, the proposed framework provides an unbiased measuring tool to assess land-use systems. The framework is more oriented towards social and environmental aspects, even though it considers the importance of income generation and increased agricultural yields. Previous studies discuss how the operationalization of other frameworks yield weak quantifications for assessing sustainability of production systems, in the sense that, even when natural resources are depleted to the maximum, the system is considered sustainable if it continues to yield economic and material returns 22.
Finally, more exhaustive studies need to be conducted to explore the nexus between climate action, peacebuilding and sustainable agriculture. These could cover climate finance, business-inclusive value chains, business models and enabling conditions to scale-up adoption of sustainable land-use systems, as well as analyses to determine whether or not cocoa cultivation is causing deforestation and forest degradation in Colombia.