Effect of Exposure to Crude Oil Polluted Environment on Hematological and Serological Indices in Chickens: Variability in Breed Sensitivity

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4198608/v1

Industrial petrochemical activities pose a significant threat to the ecosystem and could cause health issues in chickens reared within vulnerable areas such as the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. This study investigated the differential responses of four chicken breeds (FUNAAB Alpha FAC, Ross 308 broilers AB, native chickens-origin of crude oil exploration communities HP, and native chickens-origin of non-crude oil exploration communities NHP) to crude oil flaring using blood-borne parameters. At five weeks of age, 256 chicks were randomly assigned to two groups: control and exposed, each had four replicates (eight birds/replicate). Birds in the exposed group inhaled gaseous emissions from crude oil flared in their enclosure (three hours daily on alternate days for 35 days). Haematological indices were influenced by a decrease (p<0.05) in packed cell volume and red blood cell count in the exposed group compared with the control. A remarkable rise (p<0.05) in inflammatory markers (platelet count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and interleukin-6 levels (IL-6) was also observed in most breeds. The AB showed no significant changes in haematological indices or inflammatory markers, save for IL-6. For most breeds, the exposed group had higher serum levels of aspartate aminotransaminase, alanine aminotransaminase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, total protein, and uric acid. Evidence of oxidative stress, as indicated by increased serum malondialdehyde (p<0.05) and reduced enzymatic antioxidant defense levels of glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity, was recorded. Our study revealed marked variations in blood parameters among breeds, with the AB(broiler) showing more resilience to hydrocarbon toxicity than breeds with indigenous genes.

chickens

haematological indices

hydrocarbon toxicity

inflammatory markers

pollution

oxidative stress

The Niger Delta Region of Nigeria suffers an imbalance in the ecosystem from environmental degradation associated with oil spills, gas flaring, and improper disposal of petroleum-based wastes [1, 2]. Gaseous emissions conceivable from petrochemical activities comprising nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, heavy and trace metals, volatile organic chemicals (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and particulate matters are preponderant in the Niger Delta communities with intense petrochemical activities [3, 4]. The harsh environmental conditions due to pollution, as described in the 2011 UNEP Report, result in low productivity in crop or fish farming (https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/7947) in these communities. Supporting smallholder poultry production could serve as an alternate means of generating income and ensuring food security. In these rural communities, many families raise traditional indigenous (native) chickens, which, though asserted to be sturdy and highly adapted to adverse environments, are poor meat and egg producers. Promoting the production of fast-growing, commercial breeds, for instance, broiler chickens, is imperative for enhancing income generation and ensuring sufficient animal protein for these households.Considering the threat environmental pollution poses to animal welfare, inhalation of air pollutants from crude oil exploration and exploitation activities has been asserted to be a significant threat to poultry species, due to the toxicological hazards of hydrocarbons [5] resulting in several physiological dysfunctions. Previous studies [6, 7], indicated that birds exposed to oil spills showed tendencies for disruption of normal biochemical and cellular metabolic processes associated with glucose homeostasis, bile acid metabolism, protein catabolism, and lipid peroxidation. Exposure has also been implicated in the occurrence of pulmonary dysfunction, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, abnormal immunotoxicity, and reduced reproductive fitness in birds [8-10]. Reports on heterogeneity in tolerance levels and mechanisms towards hydrocarbon fragments in different species were given by [7, 11]. According to [12], genetic, metabolic, and signal transduction pathways may cause such heterogeneity.

We hypothesize that there may be variations in breed specificity that could influence the physiological responses of chickens raised in regions with a high incidence of hydrocarbon pollutant exposure from crude oil exploration. To understand the possible toxicity to chickens, a controlled-exposure study using standard blood-based measures of physiological stress is imperative. In this study, therefore, we mimicked a heavy petrochemical condition by flaring crude oil under controlled exposurein the poultry houseand investigated the response of four chicken breeds to inhalation of gaseous emissions using blood-borne parameters.

Research Location and Experimental Animals

The research was conducted from November 2022 to February 2023 at the Teaching and Research Farm of Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt. Rivers State is located in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The study used day-old chicks from four chicken breeds: FUNAAB Alpha (FAC), Ross 308 broilers (AB), native chickens from the heavy petrochemical activity region (HP), and native chickens from the non-heavy petrochemical activity region (NHP). The native chickens were light ecotypes according to the classification of [13]. The FAC and NHP chicks were obtained in Abeokuta and hatched at the Poultry Breeding Unit of the Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta (FUNAAB). Abeokuta is not known for petrochemical activities associated with crude oil exploration and exploitation. The AB chicks were obtained from the Agrited hatchery in Ibadan. The HP chicks were hatched from fertile eggs obtained from Eleme, Okrika, and Gokana communities in Rivers State, Nigeria (these communities are under heavy petrochemical activity). The eggs were incubated and hatched at the Poultry Research Unit of the Department of Animal Science, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt.

Experimental Design and Procedure

A total of 256 chicks, consisting of 64 chicks per breed, were used in the study. The chicks were raised in separate deep litter enclosures based on their strain, using wood shavings as bedding from the first day of life until they were four weeks old. At five weeks of age, they were randomly assigned to an exposed group and a control group. Each group consists of four replicates, with 8 chickens per replicate. The birds in the treatment group were raised in a simulated hydrocarbon environment (a poultry unit with controlled exposure to 1000 ml of Bonny Light crude oil burned on alternate days in a cylindrical metallic container with a surface area of 942.48 cm2). The birds in the control group were reared in a different poultry unit, 30 meters away from the exposed unit. All the experimental birds were kept under a 16-hour light schedule and had unrestricted access to feed (Table 1) and water.

Table 1 Proximate composition of diets used for the experimental birds
Ingredients	Pre-starters	Starters	Finishers
Crude protein %	22.5	20.5	19
Crude fat %	4	5	5.5
Crude fibre %	5	5	5
Calcium %	0.95	0.90	0.80
Phosphorus %	0.45	0.40	0.38
Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg)	3000	3100	3150
Lysine %	1.30	1.15	1.05
Methionine %	0.58	0.52	0.46
Source: Commercial Feed -Happy Chicken Broiler Feed (Karma Agric Feeds & Foods Limited, Ibadan, Nigeria)

Table 2 Variation in hematological indices of different breeds of chicken¹ exposed to inhalation of gaseous emissions from crude oil flaring
PARAMETER	FAC	AB	HP	NHP	SE	P-VALUE
PCV (%)	25.40^b	27.83^a	25.33^b	29.07^a	0.56	0.000
Hb (g/dl)	8.08^b	8.48^b	7.91^b	9.25^a	0.30	0.000
RBC (10⁶/µl)	3.74^b	4.05^a	3.71^b	3.88^b	0.07	0.023
ESR (mm/hr)	3.99^a	3.05^b	4.56^a	2.09^c	0.23	0.000
WBC (10³/µl)	52.50^a	43.00^b	46.00^a	42.58^b	3.43	0.000
PLAETLET (10³/µl)	235.00^a	148.17^b	227.67^a	158.17^b	8.89	0.003
H-L ratio	0.72^a	0.68^a	0.63^b	0.69^a	0.02	0.000
IL-6 (pg/ml)	36.52^c	40.27^c	58.53^a	49.16^b	2.40	0.000
^abMeans on the same row with different superscripts are significantly different at given p-levels. SE – standard error ¹FUNAAB Alpha (FAC), Ross 308 broilers (AB), native chickens from the heavy petrochemical activity region (HP), and native chickens from the non-heavy petrochemical activity region (NHP). PCV – Packed Cell Volume; Hb – Hemoglobin; RBC- Red Blood Cell; ESR – Erythrocyte sedimentation rate; WBC White blood cell; H- Heterophil; L= Lymphocyte; IL-6 – Interleukin 6

Table 3 Variations in hepato-renal function and oxidative stress biomarkers of different breed of chickens¹ due to exposure to gaseous emissions from crude oil flaring
		BREED
Parameter	FAC		AB	HP	NHP	SE	P-value
Liver function
AST(IU/ml)	83.43^b		95.31^a	79.0^b	70.14^c	1.32	0.000
ALT(IU/ml)	12.60^a		11.24^b	11.59^b	11.48^b	0.13	0.000
ALP(IU/ml)	118.03^b		128.00^a	119.25^a	92.18^c	2.55	0.000
Renal function
Creatinine (mg/dl)	0.70		0.68	0.63	0.65	0.02	0.368
Protein(g/L)	48.21		43.36	45.92	37.33	1.06	0.009
Glucose(mg/dl)	217.90^b		184.11^a	216.64^b	205.84^b	3.35	0.000
Uric acid(µmol/L)	310.72^a		315.68^a	289.23^a	219.81^b	15.97	0.000
Oxidative biomarkers
MDA (nmol/ml)	10.96^a		8.59^b	10.96^a	10.17^a	0.40	0.000
SOD(IU/ml)	50.90^a		48.73^a	44.51^b	47.91^a	2.09	0.020
GPx (IU/ml)	26.29^b		36.52^b	26.88^b	29.20^b	1.53	0.000
^abMeans on the same row with different superscripts are significantly different at given p-levels. SE – standard error ¹FUNAAB Alpha (FAC), Ross 308 broilers (AB), native chickens from heavy petrochemical activity region (HP), and native chickens from non-heavy petrochemical activity region (NHP) AST – aspartate aminotransaminase; ALT – alanine aminotransaminase; ALP – Alkaline phosphatase; MDA – malondialdehyde; SOD – superoxide dismutase; GPx- Glutathione peroxidase.

At the end of the exposure period, 3 birds from each replicate pen (18 birds per group) were randomly chosen for blood sample collection from their brachial vein using a 5 ml disposable syringe and a 23-gauge sterile needle. 2ml of the blood was placed in labelled vials with ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) as an anticoagulant for haematological investigation. The samples were promptly stored in a cold-chain box at 4^oC and transported to the laboratory for examination. Haematological parameters such as red blood cell count,hemoglobin concentration, total and differential white blood cell counts, and packed cell volume were assessed following the methods outlined by [14, 15]. The remaining 3 ml was transferred to plain vials for serological analysis. Centrifuging the vials at 3000 revolutions per minute for 10 minutes produced the serum. Afterward, serum samples were transferred in Eppendorf tubes and stored at −4^oC for subsequent analysis of hepatic function (AST, ALT, ALP, albumin, and total protein), renal function (glucose, creatinine, and uric acid), and oxidative stress biomarkers (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase). The serum analyses for hepatic and renal function indices, as well as the oxidative biomarkers were carried out using commercial diagnostic kits according to stipulated protocols by the manufacturer.

Statistical Analysis

The obtained data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism Version 9.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc. USA). A randomized two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the experimental groups, followed by post-test direct comparisons using Turkey’s multiple comparisons test. Significant differences were noted at p<0.05.

Effect of Exposure on Haematological Indices

Figure 1 displays the effect of exposure to inhalation of gaseous emissions from crude oil flaring on haematological indices in the chicken populations studied. There was a significant decrease in PCV and RBC (P < 0.05) in the exposed group for all breeds except the AB (Figures 1a and 1c respectively). Such variation was not exhibited (P<0.05) in their Hb and WBC (Figure 1b and 1d respectively), though they appeared to be a decrease in the exposed group. A significant disparity (P<0.05) in all the hematological indices,due to breed effect was observed in the exposed group (Table 2).

Effect of Exposure on Inflammatory Markers

A decrease in platelet count (Figure 2a) was seen in AB and NHP between the exposed and the control, though the disparity was only significant for the NHP breed (P < 0.05). Figure 2 also depicted an increase in serum levels of IL-6, ESR, and H-L ratio in all the breeds studies, though the variation between the exposed and the control groups was more remarkable for ESR and IL-6.The exposure effect was significant for ESR values in the FAC and HP breeds, whereas a significant change in serum IL-6 was observed only in AB (P < 0.05). Although there was an increase in the H-L ratio for all breeds, such an increase was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Table 2 also shows a high degree of statistically significant breed effect (P < 0.05) in all inflammatory biomarkers assessed, except for the H-L ratio.

Effect of Exposure on Hepatic Function

The influence of exposure on the hepatic function of various chicken breeds is presented in Figure 3. The study found that the levels of AST and ALP (Figures 3a and 3c)went up significantly (P< 0.0001) in all chicken breeds except NHP suggesting possible liver dysfunction due to hydrocarbon exposure.

A notable rise (P<0.0001) in the ALT level occurred as a result of exposure to crude oil flame emission in the FAC breed, but no significant effect (P > 0.05) was obvious in the other breeds (Figure 3b).The AST and ALP in the AB were significantly higher by 25.17 and 35.07 iu/l compared to other breeds (P< 0.0001), with the NHP showing the lowest value (Table 3). Table 3also revealed a rise of 10.79% in ALT recorded in the FAC compared to the other three breeds (P < 0.0001). Generally, our findings imply that FAC, AB, and HP may have experienced liver damage due to the inhalation of the gaseous emissions.

Effect of Exposure on Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

The elevated serum MDA level in all breeds (P<0.0001) shown in Figure 4a and a concurrent decline in the GPx levels of some breeds (FAC and HP) shown in Figure 4b show that exposure to the emissions significantly induced lipid peroxidation. Among the four breeds examined, the AB demonstrated superior enzymatic activity of GPx in contrast to the other breeds (Table 3). Though there was a decrease in the activity of the antioxidant enzyme SOD in the exposed group for all breeds, the level of activity was comparable to their control counterparts (Figure 4c) but varied among the exposed breeds, with HP having the least activity (Table 3).

Effect of Exposure on Renal Function Markers

The effect of hydrocarbon exposure on the renal function of various chicken breeds is presented in Figure 5. A notable increase (P < 0.05) in creatinine levels was observed in the exposed group compared to the control group, particularly in the FAC and AB breeds (Figure 5a), although there was no significant breed effect. Exposure to gaseous emissions from crude oil flaring resulted in an increase (P<0.0001) in serum protein concentration for all the breeds except NHP (Figure 5b), and a similar trend was exhibited in the breed effect, as detailed in Table 3. Our study revealed that exposure to gaseous fumes, did not impair glucose metabolism (P > 0.05), in both the control and treated group for all the breeds, as shown in Figure 5c.

Interestingly, there was no consistent pattern in the effect of exposure on the uric acid profile, though a significant exposure effect (P< 0.0001) was seen in AB and HP breeds. The exposed group had higher levels of uric acid in AB, whereas the reverse was the case for HP (Table 3).

The impacts of pollutants are traditionally detected by blood-borne biochemical indicators [16, 17], which permit measuring the physiological changes in response to the xenobiotic insult and the delivery of appropriate therapeutic intervention [18]. Our findings showed that the PCV and RBC of three breeds in the exposed group were lower compared to their control groups. Only the exposed AB showed no difference in PCV level, while the Hb and WBC of all breeds were within normal ranges. As evidenced in the current study, exposed chickens exhibited tendencies towards physiologic anaemia with PCV values lower than 28% [19] in most of the breeds. A similar result was reported by [20]. The destruction of red blood cells during hemolysis likely contributed to the elevated levels of hemoglobin despite the presence of anemia, as hemoglobin levels are known to increase in conditions associated with intravascular hemolysis and hemoglobinuria [21]. No particular trend of change was seen in the current study for WBC, although in the native chickens (HP and NHP), there appeared to be a non-significant negative change in the HP and NHP. In another study [22], a negative association was reported between WBC and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an exposed human population. Air pollutants from crude oil flaring, such as particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, stimulate systemic inflammatory responses in the exposed subject [23]. The platelet count, H-L ratio, ESR and IL-6 can serve as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and are often utilized to reflect inflammatory and immune status in chickens [24-27]. Decreased platelets production may be caused by toxic substances such as those from hydrocarbons. Meanwhile, high platelet counts can raise the risk of anemia. The existence of a positive association between platelet count and inflammation was summarized by [28], identifying the role of platelets as initial actors in the development of atherosclerotic lesions. A significant increase in heterophil and decrease in lymphocyte counts were reported in broiler chickens exposed to crude petroleum flames [29]. In the current study, the effect of exposure on the H-L ratio did not show substantial increases across all tested breeds, though it does not rule out the possibility that the birds experienced severe physiological stress from exposure by inhalation of gaseous emissions, as evidenced by elevated IL-6 and ESR levels. IL-6 is a versatile cytokine generated by both lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells to control immunological response, inflammation, cancer development, blood cell formation, and mainly the body's defense system [30]. Surprisingly, the release of this pro-inflammatory cytokine in response to the xenobiotic assault by the HP breed depicted a tendency for inflammation and immunotoxicity, whereas the AB and NHP breeds showed higher tolerance. Thus, this may highlight the need for further investigation into the underlying regulatory roles of adaptive response genes in the face of stressors. We also presume that, in the course of selection and genetic improvement of the AB, the likelihood that some stress adaptive genes might have become fixated could exist.

The role of the liver in the metabolism of nutrients and xenobiotics is crucial for the maintenance of normal physiological functions of birds [31]. Our findings revealed a surge in the activity of the liver enzymes (AST and ALP) in the exposed group, suggesting the occurrence of toxicity and oxidative stress. Elevated levels of the liver enzymes such as AST and ALT are indicative of disease caused by toxic liver necrosis and oxidative stress [32, 33]. AST increase is viewed as an indicator of hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress in rats, as discussed by [34, 35]. This is similarly comparable to the ALP elevations associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in humans [36]. Exposing the chicken breeds to hydrocarbons air pollutants may have not only induced stress, but also contributed to their liver disintegration. Exposure of various chicken breeds to hydrocarbon pollution may not only have induced oxidative stress, but also contributed to liver damage. While the ALT levels remained stable in the other three chicken breeds, the FAC levels were notably elevated, suggesting potential liver damage [35]. In one study, ducks exposed to different sources of air pollution reported early and progressive stages of apoptosis in their hepatic cells, implicating liver damage due to exposure [37]. This depicts the potentials of hydrocarbon exposure to disrupt the normal function and physiology of key vital organs involved in nutrient metabolism and detoxification.

Reactive species (oxygen and nitrogen), generally known as free radicals, released extracellularly, modify host proteins, resulting in oxidative stress, which has been linked in incidence and advancement of several diseases [38]. Oxidative stress refers to the disparity between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an organism's biosystems responsible for detoxification, leading to disequilibrium in the redox homeostatic balance of the animal [39-41]. Oxidative stress biomarkers are commonly utilized as a supplementary method for toxicity assessments to evaluate the effects of harmful pollutants on organisms. The rise in serum MDA levels observed in the exposed group across all breeds in the current study is an indication of lipid peroxidation, suggesting a high stress index initiated by exposure to petroleum pollutants [42]. Air pollutants from petrochemical activities cause decline in the antioxidant status of exposed subjects, due to increased lipid peroxidation and excessive production of reactive oxygen species [43]. The results we obtained align with [44], findings on fish tissues exposed to hydrocarbons from petroleum. Previously, [45, 46] reported a positive association between exposure to PAH and MDA level. MDA combines with DNA at the molecular level to create MDA-DNA adduct, a crucial indicator of endogenous DNA damage [47]. Furthermore, overproduction of ROS like superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) leads to the generation of abnormal molecular byproducts that are nonfunctional and sometimes cause oxygen damage in tissues [48]. Under normal metabolic conditions, SOD and GPx play a role in maintaining the balance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. This balance is disrupted when oxidative stress is induced by xenobiotic factors [49]. GPx has a high affinity for H₂O₂ reducing its breakdown as well as that of lipid peroxide [50]; hence, its enzymatic activity is involved in the termination reaction of the reactive oxygen species pathway [51]. The reduction in GPx levels in the exposed group in the current study, most especially in the FAC and HP breeds, strongly suggests the initiation of oxidative stress due to exposure.

Exogenous creatinine concentration is an indicator of renal function [52, 53] and a useful test for assessing the renal function of birds. Our findings implicated exposure to hydrocarbon pollutants as a critical factor that may contribute to nephrotoxicity and affirm the findings of [54], in which exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons led to a significant rise in serum urea and creatinine in rats. Haemolytic circumstances, MDA-DNA adduction, and an increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate could have resulted in an accumulation of proteins in the blood of exposed chicken breeds. The renal failure also hinders the elimination of nephrotoxic substances, leading to sluggish expulsion. Our findings are in line with the suggestions of [55, 56] that hydrocarbon pollutants are implicated in nephrotoxicity.

In the current study, the exposure of different chicken breeds to gaseous emissions from crude oil flaring appeared to inducehaemolyticanemia, inflammation, oxidative stress, hepatic, and renal dysfunction in the chicken breeds. Surprisingly, the Ross 308 broiler (AB) breed showed evidence of greater tolerance to hydrocarbon toxicity. The study of [57], demonstrated that selection processes in the commercial chickens could have reduced the frequency of deleterious genes.Therefore, understanding the mechanism and pathways of the expression of some xenobiotic metabolism related genes in relation to the current findings should be considered. Perhaps our study could be a lead towards adopting the use of blood markers as selection criteria traits for the development of hydrocarbon-tolerant breeds. Meanwhile, raising Ross 308 broiler (AB) breed for sustainable socio-economic and food security in hydrocarbon-polluted communities in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is recommended.

FAC: FUNAAB Alpha chickens,

AB: Ross 308 (Agrited) broilers,

HP: native chickens-origin of crude oil exploration communities

NHP: native chickens-origin of non-crude oil exploration communities

EDTA: ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid

PCV: Packed Cell Volume;

Hb: Hemoglobin;

RBC: Red Blood Cell;

ESR: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate;

WBC: White blood cell;

H: Heterophil;

L: Lymphocyte;

IL-6: Interleukin 6

AST: Aspartate aminotransaminase;

ALT: Alanine aminotransaminase;

ALP: Alkaline phosphatase;

ROS: Reactive oxygen species

PAH: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

MDA: Malondialdehyde;

SOD:Superoxide dismutase;

GPx: Glutathione peroxidase.

H₂O₂: Hydrogen peroxide

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

Ethical Approval and Consent to Participate

Approval to carry out this study was given by the Research and Development Ethics Committee on Research, Rivers State University (R&D21102020/FAG01).

Consent for Publication

Not applicable

Data Availability and Material

The datasets analyzed during the current study are presently not publicly available due to restrictions but can be accessed upon reasonable request from the corresponding author (VUO).

Competing Interests

We declare that the study was conducted without any competing interests.

Funding

This project was supported by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund National Research Fund Intervention (TETF/ES/DR&D-CE/NRF2020/SETI/04/VOL.1).

Authors’ Contributions

Conceptualization, design and supervision of project: VUO and IIK; Data curation, and methodology: OCE, PNO, IIK, VUO and OAO; Data analysis: VUO and LBF; writing of original draft: VUO, LBF, UEO and ABS. Review and finalized manuscript: VUO, UEO and IIK. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

We are very grateful to the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) National Research Fund Intervention which generous funding made this study possible. We would want to express our profound gratitude to the Management of Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, who through the Faculty of Agriculture and, the Department of Animal Science approved the site for the research project. The invaluable guidance and support of Prof. B. B. Fakae and, kind assistance and dedication of our research assistants, are deeply appreciated.

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No competing interests reported.

Effect of Exposure to Crude Oil Polluted Environment on Hematological and Serological Indices in Chickens: Variability in Breed Sensitivity

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Abstract

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Introduction

Materials And Methods

Results

Discussion

Abbreviations

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References

Additional Declarations

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Version 1