Workplace procrastination is postponing work-related tasks by deliberately engaging in nonwork-related activities without intending to harm others in the workplace [1]. Office workers are at high risk for procrastination due to their self-selection or situational factors [2]. On average, organizational employees spend approximately 1.3 hours daily on non-work-related activities. This results in an estimated annual loss of $8875 to $10,000 annually [3,4,5]. Procrastination at work can harm organizational development and employees' well-being [6,7]. This could adversely affect organizational outcomes, leading to a loss of productivity and a less competitive work environment [8,9,10]. Furthermore, it could result in adverse employee outcomes, including lower salaries, decreased performance, and shorter employment tenure [11,12].
Despite our understanding of the importance of workplace procrastination and its widespread impact on individual and organizational outcomes, more research still needs to be conducted within the work setting [13,14]. Procrastination research has predominantly focused on academic contexts, with comparatively limited investigation within the organizational domain [15]. Recently, researchers have shown interest in examining this phenomenon within the work setting. However, organizational scholars have primarily focused on theory development [16], measurement[1,17], and differentiating procrastination from related concepts [18] with a lesser emphasis placed on empirical research. Therefore, it is critically important to identify and examine the antecedents of workplace procrastination. Doing so offers theoretical explanations for and practical guidance on efficiently mitigating this behavior [7, 2].
While past research has investigated some personal (e.g., sleep quality; [15]) and contextual factors (e.g., workload; [19]) with the occurrence of workplace procrastination, little attention has been paid to examining the factors that reduce employees’ procrastination. Therefore, this study aims to examine how employees' psychological characteristics - namely psychological empowerment and psychological ownership - can help reduce workplace procrastination. Further, researchers have not reached a consensus as to why different antecedents lead to workplace procrastination. The self-determination theory states that when the psychological needs of the employees are fulfilled, they are more likely to be committed to their organizational goals and less likely to be involved in negative behavior [20]. As psychological empowerment and psychological ownership enhance employees’ organizational commitment by fulfilling their psychological needs [21,22], it is assumed that employees will be less likely to engage in procrastination behavior [23]. We thus propose that organizational commitment may mediate between employees' psychological characteristics and workplace procrastination.
This study contributes to the existing body of literature in the following ways. First, while research on procrastination has been primarily conducted in the academic setting, its examination within an organizational context has been limited, leading many organizational behavior scholars to call for more focused research in this area (e.g., [13,14]). Drawing on self-determination theory, this research explores factors that could minimize procrastination behavior in the workplace. Second, prior research has primarily focused on the direct relationship between various predictors and procrastination without explaining the underlying theoretical mechanism of this relationship. Using the self-determination theory as a framework, we propose that organizational commitment serves as a mediating mechanism in the relationship between psychological empowerment, psychological ownership, and employee procrastination behavior.
Theoretical Basis and Research Hypothesis
Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory suggests that satisfying psychological needs such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness brings pleasure and happiness and fosters positive work behaviors [24]. In contrast, if these needs remain unfulfilled, it leads to undesirable behaviors [25]. When individuals' basic needs are fulfilled, their frequency of procrastinating work will reduce [26]. Based on self-determination theory, we propose that employees' psychological characteristics (i.e., psychological empowerment and ownership) can satisfy employees' psychological needs. Psychological empowerment serves employees' fundamental needs, such as self-efficacy, competence, and self-determination [27]. Similarly, employees’ desire to psychologically own their organization is based on satisfaction of needs of efficacy, self-identity, and relatedness [21]. Therefore, drawing on self-determination theory, we suggest that the psychological characteristics of the employees will help reduce their procrastination behavior by serving their fundamental needs.
Psychological Empowerment and Workplace Procrastination
Self-Determination Theory posits that intrinsic motivation is vital in driving proactive work behaviors [84], reducing tendencies to procrastinate. Psychological empowerment fosters intrinsic motivation, where employees find internal satisfaction in their work [24]. Intrinsically motivated employees are less prone to procrastination, as they find the work itself engaging and rewarding [85]. Psychological empowerment holds a sense of self-efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities to influence outcomes [28,83]. This belief can reduce procrastination, which is often fuelled by self-doubt and a perceived lack of ability. Zimmerman [29] suggested that empowered employees are more likely to take timely actions rather than delaying tasks. Employees high in psychological empowerment feel confident in their ability to accomplish the tasks effectively [30,31], which plays pivotal role in reducing procrastination [32,33].
Another aspect of psychological empowerment is the feeling of having an impact, which instils employees with a sense of responsibility towards their tasks. This sense of responsibility can limit the act of procrastination. The sense of being psychologically empowered makes employees fully accountable and responsible for work outcomes which encourage employees to engage actively and less likely to defer tasks [34]). Self-determination theory suggests when employees’ basic psychological needs are satisfied, they are more likely to act positively [35], and avoid undesirable behavior at work [36]. Psychological empowerment increases the value employees place on their tasks [37]. When tasks are valued and meaningful, the tendency to procrastinate decreases [38]. Based on these arguments, we suggest a following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1: Psychological empowerment significantly reduces workplace procrastination behavior among employees.
Mediating Role of Organizational Commitment between Psychological Empowerment and Workplace Procrastination
Based on self-determination theory, when employees’ basic psychological needs are satisfied, they are more likely to act positively [35] and avoid undesirable behavior at work [36]. Psychologically empowered employees are competent to perform their task successfully because they feel self-sufficient and self-assured to influence at [39], which reduces the amount of irrational delay [16]. Employees high in psychological empowerment feel confident in their ability to accomplish tasks effectively [31], which helps them reduce their procrastination behavior [32, 33]. Psychologically empowered individuals tend to be highly self-motivated, resilient, and concentrated [40], refraining from putting off work.
Employees with high psychological empowerment are willing to take responsibility for their tasks and express a higher organizational commitment [41]. They are less likely to exhibit procrastination behavior at work [23]. Psychological empowerment increases employees' self-confidence, encouraging them to perform tasks more effectively and enhancing organizational commitment [42]. Employees' organizational commitment enables them to reduce their procrastination in the workplace [43]. Employees who feel autonomy in their decision-making are ready to take responsibility, exert effort to accomplish goals, and show more commitment toward their organization [44]. Highly committed employees accept their responsibilities, want to stay in their organization and show a lower tendency to procrastinate their tasks [45]. According to self-determination theory, psychologically empowered individuals are more self-driven and competent to perform their tasks, which leads them to show a high level of organizational commitment [46]. Organizational commitment is the employees’ psychological bond with the organization that reflects numerous elements of behavioral volition, persistence, and dedication [47,48,49], which restrict them in engaging non-work-related behavior [50].
Hypothesis 2: Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between psychological empowerment and workplace procrastination behavior.
Psychological Ownership and Workplace Procrastination
Employees who experience feelings of psychological ownership often sense greater control and power over their tasks, which enhances their self-efficacy [51,52,53]. This, in turn, is likely to foster positive work outcomes. Having control over one's own behavior increases the sense of responsibility, motivating employees to engage in positive behavior and avoid negative actions, such as procrastination [54,55,51]. Control is a key characteristic of psychological ownership; greater control leads to feelings of possession, pleasure, and self-efficacy [56, 57,53], which, in turn, enhances effort toward the target. Studies have shown that employees who exhibit high levels of psychological ownership are more engaged, show higher job satisfaction, and are more proactive in their work and thus less likely to procrastinate the tasks.
When employees feel they have control at work and possess intimate knowledge of the organization [53], a sense of ownership arises, compelling them to invest themselves in achieving organizational tasks without irrational delays [58]. According to self-determination theory, when employees’ basic psychological needs are met, they exhibit more positive behavior [25, 24]. Katz et al. [26] reveal that fulfilling these needs can reduce negative behavior at work. Feelings of psychological ownership encourage employees to invest their time, effort, and physical and psychological energy [58,59,53], leading to desirable behaviors [21] and deterring them from procrastination. Based on these arguments, we suggest a following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3: Psychological empowerment significantly reduces workplace procrastination behavior among employees.
Mediating Role of Organizational Commitment between Psychological Ownership and Workplace Procrastination
Employees with feelings of psychological ownership experience a greater sense of control and power over the objects, which increases their feelings of self-efficacy [51], and, in turn, they are more likely to foster positive work outcomes. When Employees feel they have control at work and have intimate knowledge about the organization [53], a sense of possession arises, which forces them to invest themselves in achieving the organizational tasks [58], without any irrational delay. Feelings of psychological ownership encourage employees to invest their time, effort, and physical and psychological energy [59,53,60], leads to desirable behavior [21]), and refrain them from putting off the task.
Pierce, O’driscoll, and Coghlan [52] argued that employees with psychological ownership feel privileged to be a part of their organization, which may boost their organizational commitment. Highly committed individuals try to show optimal work behavior [61], which reduces their tendency to procrastinate [18]. The feeling of psychological ownership is linked with self-concept [62] that enhance their confidence and act as an owner [63,53,64] and motivate them to avoid dysfunctional behavior [65]. Employees who exhibit a high level of psychological ownership are more committed to their organization [57,56], which refrain them from engaging in non-work-related behavior [50]. Similarly, a sense of ownership encourages employees to exert effort, leading to a higher level of organizational commitment [21]. Employees with high organizational commitment are more willing to work hard to accomplish the organizational goals, want to maintain their membership with the organization [66], and are less likely to exhibit procrastination behavior [67].
Hypothesis 4: Organizational commitment mediates the relationship between organization-based psychological ownership and workplace procrastination behavior.
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