Diversity, Evenness, &amp; Richness of Wild Mammals of Sutlej River, Punjab, Pakistan

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4328222/v1

The field surveys were conducted at the following three different water heads, i.e., Sulamnki, Islam, and Panjnad, of the Sutlej River from June 2021 to November 2021, and this is the first effort to estimate the diversity and assess the current threats to the mammalian fauna of the Sutlej River. During the surveys of the research areas, a total of 266 individuals belonging to four orders, seven families, and 12 different species were observed. According to the results, greatest number of individuals of the Rodentia order and the Muridae family, and lowest number of individuals in the Lagomorpha order and the Leporidae family. According to the indices, the Panjnad waterhead showed the greatest diersty and evenness, followed by those of Sulamanki and Islam, with H = 2.453746 and E = 1.065648, H = 2.200177 and E = 0.955525, and H = 2.136116 and E = 0.927703, respectively. The richness of mammals was the same at all three localities (R = 1.61189). Throughout the investigation, some threats, such as pollution, destruction of habitat and the Humen–Wildlif conflict, were observed to drastically affect mammalian diversity.

River Sutlej

Mammals

Diversity

Head Sulamanki and Islam

Pakistan is a country with a diverse range of environmental features, such as great Himalayan ranges, northern Hindu Kush and Karakorum mountain ranges, deserts and plain areas of Indus, rivers, and coastal regions. With its diverse range of wildlife habitats and landscapes, Pakistan provides a wide variety of wetlands, as well as related plants and animals (Akhtar et al., 2018). This country is divided into three biogeographic regions: "Palearctic," "Oriental,” and "Ethiopian." The region comprises eighteen distinct geographical zones, including , Inundation Zones, Alpine meadows, Inundation Zones, Monsoon-influenced subtropical forest, Sand Dunes, Indus Plains, Balochistan Desert Scrub, Dry temperate coniferous forest, Himalayan moist temperate forest, and Monsoon-influenced subtropical forest. There are currently approximately 4763 known mammal species worldwide. Pakistan is home to approximately 195 mammalian species (Roberts, 2005). Worldwide, a total of eighteen orders of mammals were recorded, and of these, ten orders were also reported from Pakistan. Out of 195 mammal species, five were commonly found in Pakistan (Kanwal & Ashraf, 2021). Five of these are found in Pakistan; the remaining twelve are found to be critically endangered (one endemic), endangered (twelve endemic), vulnerable (twenty), near threatened (one endemic), least concerning (seventy one), data deficient (thirty eight), and regionally extinct (eight), and two have not been evaluated (Akhtar et al., 2018). Mammals are essential to ecosystems because they perform the crucial functions of spreading seeds, pollinating, and serving as prey for larger carnivores (Jahangeer et al., 2023). Their existence is essential to many ecosystems and greatly enhances sustainability. Furthermore, a variety of mammalian species are beneficial for nutrition, providing important sources of protein for human diets (Altaf et al., 2023). In Pakistan, peri-urban areas are the preferred habitat for northern palm squirrels (Funambulus pennantii) (Altaf et al., 2012). The habitats around agricultural areas are preferred by (Hystrix indica) Indian crested porcupine (Safeer et al., 2018), (Sus scrofa) Indian wild boar (Chughtai et al., 2018), and (Herpestes javanicus) small Indian mongoose (Altaf, 2018). To preserve the number of species, biodiversity needs better management because it is seriously threatened by man-made dangers such as habitat loss and fragmentation (Altaf et al., 2014). The first step in protecting or conserving mammal species is gathering data on the diversity and distribution of mammals (Altaf et al., 2023). Species diversity is primarily composed of richness, the total number of species in a specific area, and evenness, the distribution of relative abundance among species. Diversity indices, which include both of these components, are valid indicators of an ecosystem's overall functioning or health. Diversity monitoring is important because it illustrates how human activity affects the environment (Christie et al., 2019). In this study, the evenness, Marglef richness, and Shannon‒Wiener indices were applied to find out the diversity and distribution. This study was the first effort to investigate the natural mammalian diversity of the Sutlej River and assess the current threats to the wild mammalian fauna of different localities of the Sutlej River.

Study area:

The research was carried out from June 2021 to November 2021 at three water heads at the Sutlej River, i.e., head Sulemanki, Islam, and Panjnad. Head Sulemanki comprises a 250 ha wetland area located at 30°22'55"N, 73°51'43"E and 172 m in elevation. Waterhead Islam is located at 29°49'35"N 72°32'55"E, 145 m elevation, and Panjnad is located at 29°21'07"N 71°01'34"E, 100 m elevation and comprises wetland areas of 150 ha and 1,926.8 ha, respectively. (Figure 1). Water arrives from India via the Sulemanki waterhead, travels to Islam, and then proceeds to the Panjnad waterhead, which resides close to the Pakistan-Indian border. There are four distinct seasons in the area's micro- and mesothermal climates: the hot season, the season of blooming, the cold season, and the fall season. The annual average temperature ranged from 4°C in the winter to 50°C in the summer. River water has an average pH of 7.8, which is alkaline (Anjum et al., 2023). All three river head works fall under the plain area of Punjab, and most of the area around all the headworks has been turned into cultivated land, some of which are present in basins of rivers and dry regions such as islands. In the research region, reeds (Phragmites karka), water lilies (Nymphaea lotus) and lesser Indian reed mace (Typha angustata) are prominent aquatic plant groups. (Zzyphus mauritiana) Indian plum, goose grass (Eleusine compressa) and athel (Tamarix aphylla) are among the significant native plants found in the nearby plains.

Estimating the diversity of the mammalian fauna in the study area was performed using the linear count survey approach used a combination of direct (such as voices and physical counting methods) and indirect (such as nests, feces pellets, tree markings, collective question sheet surveys, and footprints) approaches to determine the diversity of mammals in the research area. Specimen observations were conducted via field Landscout (10 x 50 mm) Porro binoculer, and the species was accurately identified by consulting field guides (Roberts, 2005).

Analysis of data:

To perform the data analysis, various diversity indices were used to determine the various levels of diversity. The different levels of diversity in a specific research area were determined using the Margalef Richness, Shannon‒Wiener, and species evenness indices.

Index of diversity: The Shannon‒Wiener diversity index was used to determine the diversity of the present research site. The main objective of this index is to ascertain the dispersal of mammal species among reported varieties by assuming that the gathered survey data had only one variety, H' = 0; if the sampling data contained as many varieties as possible, H' = the maximum value.

H' = -∑[(pi) × log(pi)] (Sial, 2024)

where , ni is the total number of individuals of each species variety, N is the total number of identified individuals of all varieties, pi is the fraction of the i-th species variety, which is equal to ni/N, and H' is the index of diversity. The requirements of the diversity index values are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Requirements of index (diversity) values.

Index standards	Categorizations
If H' is < than one	Indicates the level of diversity is lower
H' > one but < three	Indicates diversity is medium
H' > three	Shows diversity is greater

Index of richness: Richness of species can be determined by using the (R) Margalef index. The total number of individuals in a population is called its richness, and the number of individuals depends on the size of the sample region and the time required to reach it.

R = (S − 1)(1)/lnN (Sial, 2024)

where S is the number of detected species, , Ln is the value of the natural logarithm, N is the number of reported individuals of all varieties, and Margalef is the index of species richness R. The requirements of the richness index values are provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Requirements of index (richness) values.

Index standards	Categorizations
R value is < than 2.5	Shows low richness of species
R value is > than 2.5 but < than 4	Indicates richness is medium
R is > than 4	Shows high richeness of species

Index of evenness: The evenness index can be determined by using the Magurran equation.

where S is the overall number of species, Ln is the natural logarithm, H' is the estimated Shannon‒Wiener diversity index, and E is the evenness index. The requirements of the richness index values are provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Requirements of Index (Evenness) Values.

Index standards	Categorizations
When E get closer to zero	Individuals of a species do not show an equal distribution.
When E get closer to one	Individuals of a species show an equal distribution.

The research sites included wetland ecosystems, natural plantations, terrestrial ecosystems, and irrigating canals. Considering that this environment supplies food and habitat in its natural state and favorable conditions, it can sustain a diverse number of mammals. For the first time, mammals were identified and distributed in this study along the Sutlej River. Overall, 266 individuals belonging to 12 different species, 4 orders and 7 families were recorded (Table 4). The most diverse order in this study area was Rodentia, which contained a total of 141 individuals at all three study sites, and Lagomorpha, the most uniform order, which contained only nine individuals in all three study areas (Figure 7); however, the Muridae family consisted of a maximum number of individuals (n = 107), and the Leporidae family consisted of a minimum number of individuals (n = 09), but Herpestidae only families reported from Head Islam and Panjnad (Figure 6). The greatest number of wild boar individuals and the lowest number of small Indian mangoose individuals were recorded from different research sites (Figure 8). On the basis of feeding habit patterns, the most common pattern observed in this study was omnivorous, which had 212 specimens, and the least common habit was carnivorous, which had 13 mammls, which were observed only by Head Islam and Panjnad (Figure 8). According to the IUCN Red List, all the recorded individuals were of least concern (Table 4). The Shannon‒Wiener indices for the mammalian species Sulmanki, Islam and Panjnad head were 2.200177, 2.136116 and 2.453746, respectively, while the species richness index was 1.61189 at all three sites. Overall, 83 individuals were recorded at the Sulmanki waterhead, 79 at Islam and 104 at the head of Panjnad. The species evenness at the head of Sulmanki was 0.955525, that at the head of Islam was 0.927703, and that at the head of Panjnad was 1.065648 (Table 5). Most of the area along the research site was agricultural land, which fargmented the land and contributed to greater evenness in the mammal community. According to the results of this research, the Sutlej River has a stable and balanced ecosystem due to its high evenness and medium level of species diversity, but it has a less complex or simplified ecosystem due to its low level of species richness.

Table 4. Table of recorded data of the study area.

Sr. No

Common Names

Scientafic Name

Family

Order

IUCN Status

Feeding Habit

N

Head Sulmanki

1

Indian hare

Lepus nigricollis dayanus

Leporidae

Lagomorpha

Least Concern

Herbivorous

3

2

Short tailed bandicoot rate

Nesokia indica

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Herbivorous

4

3

Five-striped Palm Squirrel

Funnambulus pennantii

Sciuridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

5

4

Indian crested porcupine

Hystrix indica

Hystricidae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Herbivorous

7

5

House rat

Rattus rattus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

8

6

Golden/Asiatic jackal

Canis aureus

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

8

7

House mouse

Mus musculus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

9

8

Indian gerbil

Tatera indica

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

10

9

Indian/Bengal fox

Vulpes bengalensis

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

14

10

Indian wild boar

Sus scrofa

Suidae

Artiodactyla

Least Concern

Omnivorous

15

Head Islam

1

Indian crested porcupine

Hystrix indica

Hystricidae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Herbivorous

3

2

Indian hare

Lepus nigricollis dayanus

Leporidae

Lagomorpha

Least Concern

Herbivorous

4

3

Small Indian mongoose

Herpestes auropunctatus

Herpestidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Carnivorous

5

4

Five-striped Palm Squirrel

Funnambulus pennantii

Sciuridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

6

5

Indian/Bengal fox

Vulpes bengalensis

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

6

Golden/Asiatic jackal

Canis aureus

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

8

7

Short tailed bandicoot rate

Nesokia indica

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Herbivorous

9

8

House rat

Rattus rattus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

10

9

Indian wild boar

Sus scrofa

Suidae

Artiodactyla

Least Concern

Omnivorous

13

10

House mouse

Mus musculus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

15

Head Panjnad

1

Indian hare

Lepus nigricollis dayanus

Leporidae

Lagomorpha

Least Concern

Herbivorous

2

Five-striped Palm Squirrel

Funnambulus pennantii

Sciuridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

4

3

Indian gry mongoose

Herpestes edwardsii

Herpestidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Carnivorous

8

4

Indian crested porcupine

Hystrix indica

Hystricidae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Herbivorous

9

5

Golden/Asiatic jackal

Canis aureus

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

10

6

Indian/Bengal fox

Vulpes bengalensis

Canidae

Carnivora

Least Concern

Omnivorous

11

7

Indian gerbil

Tatera indica

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

12

8

House rat

Rattus rattus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

14

9

House mouse

Mus musculus

Muridae

Rodentia

Least Concern

Omnivorous

16

10

Indian wild boar

Sus scrofa

Suidae

Artiodactyla

Least Concern

Omnivorous

18

∑=266

Shannon‒Wiener diversity index:

The diversity (H’) index showed that the research sites had a medium level of diversity, with H’= 2.200177 (Sulmanki), H = 2.136116 (Islam), H = 2.453746 (Panjnad) and H’>1, but H’<3 = medium diversity.

Index of richness:

The R index showed that the research area had a low richness of mammals because R = 1.61189 (Sulmanki, Islam and Panjnad) and R<2.5 = low richness.

Index of evenness:

The evenness (E) index indicates that the research area has a high evenness of mammals because E = 0.955525 (Sulmanki), E = 0.927703 (Islam), E = 1.065648 (Panjnad) and E approaches 1 = within species, and the individuals are uniformly distributed.

The overall outcomes of the studies are shown in Table 5.

Study Sites	Diversity	Richness	Evenness
Head Sulamnki	2.200177	1.61189	0.955525
Head Islam	2.136116	1.61189	0.927703
Head Panjnad	2.453746	1.61189	1.065648

Threats:

Durring research, habitat degradation, pollution, and conflicts between humans and wildlife are common threats. These factors disturb species richness and diversity as well as the ability to degread wetland areas at study sites, and in the future, species richness and diversity will both be disrupted if appropriate action is not taken promptly (Table 6).

Habitat destruction:

Humen poulation, which leads to more infrastructure such as traffic roads or highways, the counstraction of public parks and buildings and railway lines near the study area, eventually causes habitate loss and reduces the available space and resources for mammalian species. If timely measures are not taken, populations of certain mammal species may decline or become locally extinct in the future.

Humen–Wildlif conflict:

Only 14% of residents at all three waterhead sites had an initial level of education, although the majority of residents (86%) were uneducated. Due to a high rate of uneducation, the locals were unaware of the importance of wild mammalian species and were ignorant about sustainable management techniques. Moreover, species such as the Indian wild boar and Bengal fox can conflict with humans over resources such as crops or livestock. This can lead to revengeful killings and habitat disturbance, impacting the populations of these species. Due to poverty in all research areas, the ilegle hunting or pouching of mammals, such as the Indian crested porcupine, Indian wild boar, and Asiatic jackal, is targeted by poachers or hunters either for their meat or fur or as pests. Unsustainable hunting practices can lead to a decline in the population, species richness, and diversity of wild mammals.

Pollution:

Due to the lack of sustainable management and the lack of an agricultural waste management system, all the waste released in rivers increases the toxic chemical level, heavy metal level, and pH (alkalinity) level from agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, which directly or indirectly affects mammal species through their aquatic food sources. Chemical pollutants and heavy metals bioaccumulate in mammalian species through the environment, causing health diseases and decreasing species richness.

Table 6. Threats noted within research sites.

Threats	High	Medium	Low
Habitat destruction	●
Humen-Wildlif conflict	●
Pollution		●

The species diversity of mammals of the Mahaban and Malka velleys in the Buner district, Khaber Pakhtunkhwa, was investigated from October 2015 to October 2016. Shalhodabuna, Muhammad Baig, Sharra, Hanjar, Shahkot and Hkar gata were the six localities that collectively made up the study area. Ten distinct species of mammals from five orders, nine families, and ten genera were identified during this investigation. Nemorhedus goral, Myotis myotis, Macaca mulatta, Vulpes vulpes, Panthera pardus, Herpestes edwardsii, Lepus nigricollis, and Sus scrofa and Hystrix indica are the species that have been identified (Akhtar et al., 2018). To identify mammalian species, research was conducted in the Khirthar Protected Area Complex between 2010 and 2011. There were 33 different species of mammals identified. The muridae family included the (Lepus nigricollis dayanus) Indian hare, (Vulpes bengalensis) Indian fox, (Mus musculus) house mouse, (Tatera indica) Indian gerbil, (Rattus rattus) house rat, (Vulpes bengalensis) Indian fox, (Hystrix indica) Indian crested porcupine, (Canis aureus) Asiatic jackal and (Funnambulus pennantii) soft-furred field rat. Overall, thirty-three mammalian species were documented. These common species are also native to the Sutlej River (Khan et al., 2013). The study was carried out in the environs of Chinji National Park in Chakwal, Punjab, Pakistan, from October 2017 to July 2018. Twenty-two species from 15 families and 6 orders were found in the research region. The Muridae family is the most prominent family, while the Carnivora and Rodentia orders are the most dominant. Shannon-Weiner diversity index of 0.91, evenness of 0.77, and Margalef index of 5.31, it was discovered that the main species in the research region were Asiatic jackal (Canis aureus) and the dessert hare (Lepus nigricollis) (Kanwal & Ashraf, 2021). To determine the variety of mammalian fauna, research was performed at the head of Qadirabad (SA3), the Khanki waterhead (SA2), and the Marala water head (SA1), which are significant wetland locations on the Chenab River. In the study region, 15 species from 6 orders, 10 families, and 14 genera were identified between May 2009 and April 2010. The richness was 0.860 at Marala head, 0.972 at Khanki head, and 6.619 at Qadirabad head; the evenness was 0.20446 (SA1), 0.39097 (SA2), and 0.38026 (SA2), respectively. The diversity indices for Marala head, Khanki head, and Qadirabad head were 0.860, 0.972, and 0.975, respectively.( Sus scrofa) Indian wild boars and (Herpestes javanicus) littel Indian mongooses are the most common species in the research sites (Altaf et al., 2014). In the districts of Sialkot, Gujrat, and Gujranwala in Punjab, Pakistan, research was carried out to evaluate the diversity of wild mammals near the Chenab River. From May 2013 to April 2014, mammalian diversity was observed. The specimens that were reported in this study were the following: the house shrew, Mediterranean pygmy shrew, desert hare, house mouse, Northren palm squirrel, soft-furred field rat, house rat, Indian gerbil, long-eared desert hedgehog, Asiatic jackal, Indian/Bengal fox, Indian crested porcupine, small Indian mongoose, Indian wild boar, short-tailed mole rat, Indian pangolin, jungle cat and soft-furred field rat. The Shannon‒Wiener index (2.398), richness/margalef value (2.694), and evenness (0.9505) were calculated for a total of seventeen mammalian species that were found in the research area (Altaf et al., 2023). The field surveys were carried out in October and December 2015 to investigate the diversity of mammals in Lal Suhanra National Park (LSNP) in Bahawalpur. Seventeen different species of mammals were identified in this study, including the (Vulpes bengalensis) Jungle Fox, (Herpestes edwardsii) Indian Gray Mongoose, (Lepus tibetanus) Desert Hare, (Antilope cervicapra) Black Buck, (Canis aureus) Golden Jackal, (Sus scrofa) Wild Boar, (Hystrix indica) Indian Crested Porcupine, (Hemiechinus auritus) Long-Eared Hedgehog, (Nesokia indica) Sand-Tailed Mole Rat (Khan et al., 2018). A study was conducted in the desert area of district Tharparkar to study mammalian fauna from April 1 to April 10, 2013. Among the various environments in the district, 35 species were identified. The order Rodentia contained the most species, followed by Carnivora. With 15 species, rodents constituted the majority of the mammalian fauna. The most common and prevalent species were Indian gerbil (Tatera indica) and mouse species (Mus species), followed by Indian hairy footed gerbi (Gerbillus gleodowi) and Indian desert gerbil (Meriones hurrianae). Most of the ten carnivore species are rare, endangered, or very threatened (Khan et al., 2015).

In the various localities along the Sutlej River, twelve distinct mammal species have been identified. These areas primarily consist of wetlands and thin vegetation in the surrounding areas. Moreover, the Sutlej River features several different barrages and water headworks, with additional canals branching off to irrigate surrounding agricultural land (thin vegitation) with water from these headworks. Hence, the study location is deemed to offer a favorable habitat for mammals. With more time and effort devoted to data collection, more species are expected to be discovered. A total of 12 mammalian species were observed across three different areas, suggesting a moderate level of species diversity and a stable ecosystem within the research site. This conclusion is supported by the overall diversity index values, which indicate a low mammal species richness index value (1.61189) at the site, followed by medium diversity values (2.200177 for Sulmanki, 2.136116 for Islam, and 2.453746 for Panjnad) and high evenness index values (0.955525 for Sulmanki, 0.927703 for Islam, and 1.065648 for Panjnad). Regular monitoring through ongoing studies will help assess any changes in mammalian species diversity, evenness, and richness along the Sutlej River, providing valuable insights into the stability of these ecosystems.

Data Availability:

All the data described in this research paper are presented in tables and figures because they are real time data.

Competing interests:

No conflicting interests are disclosed by the author.

Funding:

For this research, no funding was obtained.

Author Contributions:

All the research was carried out by the single author Muhammad Amir Sial; in this paper no other author was involved.

Ethical Responsibilities of Authors:

Author has read, understood, and complied with the statement on "Ethical responsibilities of Authors", as found in the Instructions for Authors.

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No competing interests reported.

Diversity, Evenness, & Richness of Wild Mammals of Sutlej River, Punjab, Pakistan

Status:

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Methodology

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

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