3.1. Fruit weight, length, width and thickness
The physical characteristics of the almond varieties and genotypes were examined and given in Table 1. When fruit weight was evaluated, Nurlu genotype stood out with a weight of 1.52 g. This genotype was followed by cultivars (respectvely Nonpareil, Ferragnes, Ferraduel) and the Ak genotype was found to have the lowest fruit weight (0.92 g). Nurlu genotype was found to have the highest values in terms of fruit length, thickness and width (28.28, 7.97 and 14.25 mm, respectively). In terms of fruit length, the Nurlu genotype was followed by the Ak genotype (25.4 mm) and the Ferragnes (25.25 mm) cultivar. When fruit thickness was evaluated, no statistical difference was found between the cultivars. Similarly, no difference was detected between cultivars and genotypes in terms of fruit width. When looked at statistically (at p ≤ 0.05 level), it was seen that cultivars and genotypes significantly affected fruit weight and fruit length ( FWeight: 5.16, FLength: 7.74). In terms of pomological characteristics, generally, it was seen that the Nurlu genotype had superior characteristics than the others (Table 1). In a study conducted in Türkiye, it was reported that there was no difference in fruit weight, height and length between Ferragnes and Ferraduel cultivars (Ünsal et al. 2023), while other studies reported that the Ferragnes variety had higher values (Kaska et al. 2005; Karaat 2019). In a study comparing the Tardy-Nonpareil cultivar with 23 genotypes, it was stated that the genotypes had superior characteristics in terms of fruit weight, width and thickness (Momenpour et al. 2011). In the study which 94 genotypes were examined, it was reported that the fruit weight varied between 0.50–3.50 g, while the comparison cultivars had a weight of 1.63 (Marconar) and 3.33 g (Mamaei) (Torkaman et al. 2021). Although there are few studies comparing genotypes and cultivars, it is seen that genotypes can have superior characteristics than cultivars, as in this study (Table 1). It should not be forgotten that there may be variability depending on cultivation and ecological factors, and genotypes should be included in the garden setup for larger fruits.
3.2. Nutritional Elements
The macronutrients contained in almond fruits were examined and given in Table 1. The highest nitrogen content of the fruit was obtained in Nonpareil cultivar (5.20%), Nurlu (5.10%) and Sıra (5.10%) genotypes. Again, Nurlu genotype was found to have the highest phosphorus (1.27%) and potassium (1.13%) content. Although the Nonpareil cultivar had the highest nitrogen content, it was found to have the lowest phosphorus, potassium and calcium values. While the Ferraduel cultivar had the highest magnesium amount (1.56%), the Ferragnes cultivar had the highest calcium value (0.58%). It was observed that cultivars and genotypes significantly affected the nitrogen value, especially magnesium (FMg: 70.25, FN: 14.73). Equivalent to this study, some researchers stated that the Ferragnes variety contains more K, P and Ca than the Ferraduel cultivar. However, contrary to this study, researchers reported that the Ferraduel cultivar contained more Mg compared to the Ferragnes cultivar (Drogoudi et al. 2013). In the study conducted on Nonpareil cultivar, two times less calsium, five times less nitrogen amount was determined and twice more potassium amount was determined compared to this study (Muhammad et al. 2015). Besides, in the study which Ferragnes and Ferraduel cultivars were grown together with 10 different genotypes, it was stated that the Ferraduel cultivar had the highest Mg and Ca amount but the lowest P value (Simsek et al. 2018). Similarly, in this study, this variety was found to have the lowest P and highest Mg values (Table 1). It is thought that the different nutritional conditions of almond trees and the use of genotypes in this study may cause statistical differences. In this study, it was observed that genotype (Nurlu) came to the fore rather than cultivars in terms of macronutrient elements (Table 1).
Table 1
Quality characteristics and nutritional element contents of almond fruits.
Cultivars and Genotypes | Pomology Quality of Fruits |
Fruit Weight (g) | Fruit Length (mm) | Fruit Thickness (mm) | Fruit Width (mm) |
Ak | 0.92 + 0.14b | 25.40 + 0.49b | 5.80 + 1.50b | 13.07 + 1.67a |
Ferraduel | 1.02 + 0.12b | 21.53 + 1.65c | 6.22 + 0.42ab | 13.59 + 1.00a |
Ferragnes | 1.16 + 0.21ab | 25.25 + 0.88b | 6.84 + 0.82ab | 13.33 + 0.14a |
Nonpareil | 1.17 + 0.11ab | 23.84 + 1.29bc | 7.29 + 0.28ab | 13.09 + 0.28a |
Nurlu | 1.52 + 0.19a | 28.28 + 0.88a | 7.97 + 0.59a | 14.25 + 1.68a |
Sıra | 0.79 + 0.18b | 24.19 + 1.21bc | 6.35 + 0.64ab | 13.39 + 1.01a |
Anova |
F | 5.16* | 7.74* | 1.91ns | 0.3ns |
Cultivars and Genotypes | Macronutrient |
N % | P% | K % | Mg % | Ca % |
Ak | 4.48 + 0.15b | 0.95 + 0.14b | 0.93 + 0.09b | 0.78 + 0.06d | 0.42 + 0.10bc |
Ferraduel | 4.47 + 0.30b | 0.97 + 0.06b | 0.87 + 0.11b | 1.56 + 0.15a | 0.43 + 0.04bc |
Ferragnes | 3.78 + 0.10c | 1.04 + 0.13ab | 0.94 + 0.12ab | 1.23 + 0.07b | 0.58 + 0.11a |
Nonpareil | 5.20 + 0.14a | 0.91 + 0.06b | 0.83 + 0.06b | 1.08 + 0.06c | 0.42 + 0.06bc |
Nurlu | 5.10 + 0.29a | 1.27 + 0.16a | 1.13 + 0.09a | 1.00 + 0.13c | 0.53 + 0.03ab |
Sıra | 5.10 + 0.15a | 0.97 + 0.12b | 0.86 + 0.06b | 0.75 + 0.03d | 0.39 + 0.08c |
Anova | | | | | |
F | 14.73** | 3.89ns | 3.42ns | 70.25*** | 3.61ns |
Cultivars and Genotypes | Micronutrient |
Cu (ppm) | Fe (ppm) | Mn (ppm) | Zn (ppm) |
Ak | 0.30 + 0.09b | 41.29 + 0.08d | 21.56 + 1.12b | 48.34 + 1.77d |
Ferraduel | 0.30 + 0.03b | 40.71 + 0.05e | 21.03 + 0.86b | 44.66 + 0.61e |
Ferragnes | 0.35 + 0.08ab | 31.74 + 0.28f | 22.97 + 3.01ab | 92.02 + 0.28a |
Nonpareil | 0.32 + 0.11b | 49.82 + 0.15b | 20.69 + 0.10b | 51.78 + 0.40c |
Nurlu | 0.42 + 0.04a | 48.71 + 0.08c | 21.55 + 0.82b | 67.39 + 0.59b |
Sıra | 0.31 + 0.08b | 54.60 + 0.09a | 26.31 + 1.00a | 47.43 + 0.20d |
Anova | | | | |
F | 2.74ns | 634.41*** | 4.12ns | 96.01*** |
Different letters in the same column indicates statistical differences at p ≤ 0.05. ns:not significant. *, **, *** indicates p ≤ 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001, respectively.
Microelement (Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) contents of almond varieties and genotypes were examined (Table 1). While the Nurlu genotype (0.42 ppm) stood out in terms of the copper content of the fruit, it was observed that other genotypes and cultivars exhibited similar values. The highest iron (54.6 ppm) and manganese (26.31 ppm) contents were obtained in Sıra genotype. In terms of iron content, Sıra genotype was followed by Nonpareil cultivar (49.82 ppm) and Nurlu genotype (48.71 ppm). The lowest zinc content was found in the Ferraduel variety (44.66 ppm) and the Ferragnes cultivar had the highest value (92.02 ppm), more than twice this value. It was determined that cultivars and genotypes significantly affected (at p ≤ 0.001 level) iron and zinc contents (FFe: 634.41, FZn: 96.01). Consistent with this study, in a study conducted on 7 cultivars, including the Nonpareil cultivar, it was reported that manganese values were higher than copper values. Additionally, in contrast to this study (except for the Sıra genotype), researchers found that iron content was greater than zinc content (Yada et al. 2013). In a study conducted in Türkiye, it was reported that the Fe, Mn, and Zn contents of almond fruit were higher in the Ferragnes cultivar, and this variety was followed by the Ferraduel and Nonpareil cultivars (Özcan and Uslu, 2023). Gulsoy et al. (2022) stated that the Ferraduel cultivar had higher Zn, Mn, Fe and Cu amounts than the Ferragnes cultivar. In this study, Ferragnes cultivar was found to have higher values than Ferraduel cultivar, except for Fe (Table 1). Özcan et al. (2020) stated that the amounts of micronutrients vary depending on genotypes. Studies have generally progressed on a cultivars basis, and studies comparing genotypes and varieties are sufficient. Due to this gap, the importance of this study becomes clear.
3.3. Fatty Acid Components
Almond is one of the important fruit types in the cosmetic industry with its rich fatty acid content. These acids, which significantly affect oil quality, were examined in different genotypes and cultivars, and the contents of 5 different fatty acids are given in Table 2. It was determined that cultivars and genotypes significantly affected (at p ≤ 0.001 level) linolec, linolenic and oleic acid contents (Flinolec: 75.45, Flinolenic: 92.48, Foleic: 23.22). It also affected palmitic (F: 13.56) and stearic (F: 20.62) acids at the p ≤ 0.01 level. Linoleic acid was measured at the highest value in the Ferraduel cultivar (14.76%) and Nurlu genotype (14.34%). It was determined that the Ferragnes cultivar (10.07%) and the Ak genotype (10.05%) had the highest linolenic acid content. It has been determined that oleic acid has the highest content in terms of fatty acids. Nonpareil (70.20%) and Ferragnes (68.71%) cultivars had the highest values in this acid, while no difference was found between other genotypes and cultivars. It was also observed that genotypes contained less oleic acid compared to cultivars. Cultivars and genotypes other than Nurlu genotype did not create a statistical difference in terms of palmitic acid content. Ferragnes cultivar (3.49%) was found to have the highest stearic content, followed by Ferraduel (3.45%) and Nonpareil (3.19%) cultivars. It was determined that genotypes had lower values than cultivars in terms of stearic acid. Although Nurlu genotype had the highest linoleic content, it was found to have the lowest linolenic, palmitic and stearic contents. In general, it was observed that the Ferragnes cultivar (especially linolenic, oleic and stearic acid) had higher values in terms of fatty acid composition (Table 2). Consistent with the study, it was reported that the Ferragnes had higher fatty acids than the Ferraduel cultivar, except for stearic acid (Melhaoui et al. 2021). On the contrary, in the study conducted with genotypes and cultivars in Türkiye, it was determined that the Ferraduel had a higher amount of fatty acids (especially oleic and stearic acid) than the Ferragnes cultivar. It was also determined that their genotypes had higher values in different fatty acids (palmitic, linoleic, linolenic acid) compared to the cultivars (Simsek et al. 2018). In the study conducted on Ferraduel and Nonpareil cultivars, the Ferraduel came to the fore, except for linoleic acid (Beyhan et al. 2011). In the study where these three cultivars were used, it was found that the Nonpareil cultivar had a higher amount of linoleic acid. Researchers reported that palmitic and stearic acids were higher in the Ferraduel variety, followed by the Ferragnes and then the Nonpareil variety (Yildirim et al. 2016). Studies show that, similar to this study, cultivars stand out in terms of fatty acids, but they vary depending on the fatty acid type. It is thought that this variability occurs due to the differences in the regions grown and the differences in the cultivars and genotypes compared.
Table 2
Fatty acids, total antioxidant, total phenolic and total lipid ratios.
Cultivars and Genotypes | Fatty Acid Contents (%) |
Linoleic (C18:2) | Linolenic (C18:3) | Oleic (C18:1) | Palmitic (C16:0) | Stearic (C18:0) |
Ak | 12.15 ± 0.16d | 10.05 ± 0.12a | 64.82 ± 0.63b | 1.49 ± 0.03a | 2.93 ± 0.08c |
Ferraduel | 14.76 ± 0.18a | 7.59 ± 0.15d | 65.15 ± 0.22b | 1.53 ± 0.03a | 3.45 ± 0.05ab |
Ferragnes | 12.67 ± 0.10c | 10.07 ± 0.15a | 68.71 ± 0.14a | 1.56 ± 0.04a | 3.49 ± 0.09a |
Nonpareil | 13.71 ± 0.11b | 8.16 ± 0.16c | 70.20 ± 0.53a | 1.58 ± 0.04a | 3.19 ± 0.08bc |
Nurlu | 14.34 ± 0.12a | 7.05 ± 0.10e | 63.97 ± 0.91b | 1.25 ± 0.03b | 2.53 ± 0.06d |
Sıra | 12.26 ± 0.06cd | 9.28 ± 0.12b | 64.67 ± 0.34b | 1.54 ± 0.04a | 3.10 ± 0.09c |
Anova | | | | | |
F | 75.45*** | 92.48*** | 23.22*** | 13.56** | 20.62** |
Cultivars and Genotypes | Total Biochemicals |
Antioxidant activity (%) | Total Phenolic (mg kg− 1) | Total Lipid (%) |
Ak | 62.36 ± 0.36bc | 116.44 ± 1.39d | 53.58 ± 0.07e |
Ferraduel | 63.79 ± 0.81b | 171.24 ± 0.33a | 59.28 ± 0.15b |
Ferragnes | 59.22 ± 0.50d | 169.24 ± 1.84a | 58.97 ± 0.23bc |
Nonpareil | 65.70 ± 0.40a | 138.87 ± 0.95b | 58.67 ± 0.16c |
Nurlu | 53.33 ± 0.31e | 125.50 ± 0.26c | 54.91 ± 0.07d |
Sıra | 61.19 ± 0.43c | 119.54 ± 0.37d | 60.90 ± 0.07a |
Anova | | | | |
F | 76.28*** | 553.96*** | 413.5*** |
Different letters in the same column indicates statistical differences at p ≤ 0.05. **, *** indicates p ≤ 0.01, and 0.001, respectively.
3.4. Total Phenolic, Antioksidan Activity
Total phenolic compound amounts and antioxidant activities of almond genotypes and cultivars were examined (Table 2). The effect of cultivars and genotypes on these values was found to be significant at the p ≤ 0.001 level (Fantioxidant: 76.28, Fphenolic: 553.96). The highest total phenolic compound content was obtained in Ferraduel (171.24 mg kg− 1) and Ferragnes (169.24 mg kg− 1) cultivars. Nonpareil variety was found to have the highest antioxidant activity with a value of 65.70% and the highest total phenolic compound content after Ferraduel and Ferragnes cultivars. After the Nonpareil cultivar, the Ferraduel cultivar (63.79%) and the Ak (62.36%) genotype were found to have the highest antioxidant activity. However, the Ak genotype also had the lowest total phenolic compound content (116.44 mg kg− 1) (Table 2). Özcan et al. (2020) supported these results and stated that the antioxidant activities of the genotypes (31 numbers) varied between 44.59–91.18%. Banjanin et al. (2020) found that total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity varied (4.81–90.15%) depending on the cultivars. Another study reported that the total amount of phenolic compounds was higher in the Ferraduel cultivar and less in the Ferragnes and Nonpareil cultivars, respectively. In addition, researchers could not find any difference between Ferraduel and Ferragnes cultivars in terms of antioxidant activity and stated that Nonpareil cultivar had less activity than these (Özcan et al. 2021). It was observed that the genotypes remained weak and the cultivars came to the fore in terms of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity.
3.5. Total Lipid
The total lipid amount of almond cultivars and genotypes, which is important for oil processing, was examined and it was found to be significantly (Flipid: 413.5) affected (Table 2). The Sıra genotype was determined as the genotype with the highest total lipid amount with a value of 60.90%. This genotype was followed by Ferraduel and Ferragnes cultivars (59.28 and 58.97%, respectively). The least amount of total lipid was measured in the Ak genotype as 53.58%. Contrary to this study, it was stated in a study that the Ferragnes cultivar (54.04%) had more lipid amount than the Ferraduel (53.78%) cultivar (Sakar et al 2017). Similarly, Levent (2022) expressed the oil amounts of almond cultivars as Ferragnes (41.43%), Ferraduel (33.78%) and Nonpareil (33.67%), respectively. In a study conducted with different genotypes (94 pieces), it was stated that the oil content of almonds varied between 29.96–64.07% (Torkaman et al. 2021). In this study, while the cultivars had average data, the highest and lowest values were obtained in genotypes (Table 2). In case of cultivation for the amount of oil, which is important for cosmetic processing, this should be taken into consideration when choosing the cultivar.
3.6. Phenolics and Organic Acid Compounds
The phenolic compound contents of almond cultivars and genotypes were examined in detail and the contents of six compounds are given in Table 3. It has been determined that almond fruits are rich in catechin and ferulic acid. It was observed that genotype and cultivars significantly (at p ≤ 0.001 level) affected the content of all phenolic compounds (Frutin: 1000.71, Fcatechin: 212.95, Fferulic:931.35). The highest amounts of catechin (45.51 mg kg− 1) and o-coumaric acid (2.52 mg kg-1) were obtained in the Nonpareil cultivar. In terms of catechin, Nonpareil was followed by Ferraduel cultivar and Ak genotype. It was observed that the Nonpareil had 5 times more catechin content compared to the lowest value (9.25 mg kg− 1 Nurlu genotype). The highest ferulic acid content was obtained in the Nurlu geotype (15.61 mg kg− 1). However, this genotype was found to have the lowest o-coumaric (1.0 mg kg− 1) and catechin content. While the gallic acid content was measured in the highest amount in the Ferraduel (4.86 mg kg− 1), it was measured in the lowest amount in the Ferragnes variety (1.25 mg kg− 1). Ferragnes cultivar was determined as the variety with the highest p-coumaric acid content with 3.68 mg kg− 1. However, this cultivar was found to have the least amounts of gallic acid, o-coumaric acid and rutin (5.24 mg kg− 1). The Ak genotype, which had the lowest p-coumaric acid (1.26 mg kg− 1) content, had the highest rutin (23.15 mg kg− 1) content. Generally evaluated, it has been observed that the cultivars have superior qualities than the genotypes (especially Nonpareil) in terms of phenolic compounds (Table 3). In a study using 15 different varieties, it was reported that the Ferradual cultivar had the highest amounts of catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid and ferulic acid, and the Nonpareil had the highest amount of gallic acid (Yıldırım et al. 2016). Özcan and Uslu (2023) supported this study and reported that the Nonpareil cultivar had higher amounts of phenolic compounds (gallic acid, p- coumaric acid, quercetin) than the Ferraduel and Ferragnes cultivars in their study with different varieties. In the study conducted in Serbia, 20 genotypes and 3 cultivars were studied, and it was stated that the genotypes had higher p-coumaric acid and catechin amount. It was determined that the two cultivars had lower values than the genotypes in the amounts of ferulic acid and rutin (Čolić et al. 2017). In this study, it is seen that the cultivars with lower genotype values, except for rutin, have superior properties in terms of phenolic compounds (Table 3). It is thought that the difference arises from the fact that the varieties were grown in different ecologies and the difference in genotypes.
The organic acid contents of almond fruits were examined (Table 3) and it was observed that the cultivars and genotypes affected (at the p ≤ 0.001 level) these values significantly (Fmalic: 483.53, Fcitric:117.17). Ak genotype was determined as the genotype with the highest malic acid content (11.46 mg 100g− 1), but this genotype was also found to have the lowest succinic acid content (6.05 mg 100g− 1). Ak genotype was followed by Sıra genotype and Ferragnes cultivar in terms of malic acid. In terms of oxalic acid content, Sıra genotype (6.81 mg 100g− 1) and Ferraduel cultivar (6.70 mg 100g− 1) were found to have statistically the highest values. At the same time, Sıra genotype was determined as the genotype with the highest succinic acid content with a value of 13.12 mg 100g− 1. Nurlu genotype was found to have the highest amount of citric (14.13 mg 100g-1) and the lowest amount of oxalic acid (1.79 mg 100g− 1). In terms of citric acid, Nurlu genotype was followed by Sıra and Ak genotypes. When evaluated in general, it was seen that Sıra genotype was richer in terms of organic acids and this type was followed by Nurlu genotype and Ferragnes variety (Table 3). In a study conducted on three different varieties in Spain, similar to this study, the acid contents of almond fruits were listed as malic, citic and oxalic acid, respectively, from highest to lowest, and it was stated that the amounts varied according to the varieties (Lipan et al. 2020). Studies in almonds have generally focused on fatty acids, and studies on organic acids have been found to be insufficient. In this study, it was determined that the genotypes were at the forefront in terms of organic acid content (Table 3).
Table 3
Phenolic compounds and organic acid contents of almond fruits.
Cultivars and Genotypes | Phenolic Compounds (mg kg− 1) |
Catechin | Ferulic | Gallic | o-Coumaric | p-Coumaric | Rutin |
Ak | 25.97 ± 1.44b | 6.42 ± 0.11e | 2.70 ± 0.10d | 1.47 ± 0.09b | 1.26 ± 0.07d | 23.15 ± 0.16a |
Ferraduel | 28.19 ± 0.33b | 11.00 ± 0.27c | 4.86 ± 0.16a | 1.59 ± 0.06b | 2.51 ± 0.12c | 9.53 ± 0.17d |
Ferragnes | 18.83 ± 0.93d | 13.76 ± 0.11b | 1.25 ± 0.04e | 1.06 ± 0.07c | 3.68 ± 0.13a | 5.24 ± 0.11f |
Nonpareil | 45.51 ± 0.93a | 7.40 ± 0.15d | 3.31 ± 0.20c | 2.52 ± 0.10a | 2.22 ± 0.08c | 16.31 ± 0.40b |
Nurlu | 9.25 ± 0.24e | 15.61 ± 0.11a | 4.18 ± 0.10b | 1.00 ± 0.06c | 2.50 ± 0.15c | 10.40 ± 0.16c |
Sıra | 21.71 ± 0.38c | 3.53 ± 0.07f | 3.32 ± 0.16c | 1.10 ± 0.07c | 3.17 ± 0.08b | 7.53 ± 0.10e |
Anova | | | | | | |
F | 212.95*** | 931.35*** | 83.16*** | 53.61*** | 59.26*** | 1000.71*** |
Cultivars and Genotypes | Organic acids (mg 100g− 1) |
Malic | Oxalic | Citric | Succinic |
Ak | 11.46 ± 0.12a | 2.99 ± 0.06c | 11.55 ± 0.13c | 6.05 ± 0.06f |
Ferraduel | 7.41 ± 0.06d | 6.70 ± 0.11a | 10.92 ± 0.07c | 6.96 ± 0.08e |
Ferragnes | 10.82 ± 0.07b | 5.32 ± 0.04b | 9.72 ± 0.06d | 8.54 ± 0.11c |
Nonpareil | 6.96 ± 0.04e | 5.39 ± 0.10b | 7.85 ± 0.24e | 12.61 ± 0.14b |
Nurlu | 10.24 ± 0.13c | 1.79 ± 0.06d | 14.13 ± 0.18a | 7.59 ± 0.05d |
Sıra | 10.56 ± 0.06b | 6.81 ± 0.15a | 12.94 ± 0.38b | 13.12 ± 0.08a |
Anova | | | | |
F | 483.53*** | 476.24*** | 117.17*** | 1056.42*** |
Different letters in the same column indicates statistical differences at p ≤ 0.05. *** indicates p ≤ 0.001.
3.7. Correlation between chemical properties of fruit
The correlation between nutritional elements, fatty acids, organic acids, and phenolic compounds of almond fruits was examined and is given in Fig. 1. In terms of nutrient contents, a positive high correlation relationship was found between N and Fe (0.92) and between P and K (0.93) at the level of p ≤ 0.001. Similarly, with these results, researchers reported a positive correlation between N and Fe, K, and Mg (Aazami et al. 2022). In this study, a highly positive correlation (0.93) was obtained between Mg and total phenolic compounds (Fig. 1). A highly positive relationship between oxalic acid and total lipid amount was observed. It was determined that antioxidant activity had a positive correlation with catechin, o-coumaric acid, stearic acid and palmitic acid, while it had a negative relationship with P and K. Additionally, P and K were found to have a negative relationship with palmitic acid. It was determined that linolenic acid had a high (p ≤ 0.001) inverse relationship with both linoleic acid (-0.92) and gallic acid (-0.84). The linear relationship of stearic acid with total lipid, total phenolic compound (0.76), antioxidant activity (0.61), oxalic acid (0.79), magnesium (0.58) and palmitic acid (0.76) was determined at a significant level (Fig. 1). In study on 10 varieties, including Ferragnes, Ferraduel and Nonpareil cultivars, Levent (2022) reported that Zn content had a positive correlation with the total phenelic compound amounts, consistent with this study. It was also stated that there was a positive correlation between linoleic acid and palmitic acid (0.74) and a high correlation between Mn, Ca and K (0.87).
3.8. Relationship of varieties and genotypes with all characteristics
The relationship between the physical properties and chemical contents of the fruit in almond cultivars and genotypes was examined by heatmap analysis method and their effects were determined (Fig. 2). When all features are evaluated, it can be seen that the Nurlu genotype is completely different from others. However, it was determined that the Ferragnes exhibited different characteristics, although it was related to genotypes and cultivars other than Nurlu. In a research that can be related to this study; in a study conducted on 11 almond varieties harvested at the end of August, it was stated that the Ferragnes cultivar was not related to other varieties in terms of fatty acid content and had different properties (Piscopo et al. 2010). In this study, it was found that the physical properties of the fruit, P, K, Cu, ferulic acid and citric acid values had a highly significant (red) relationship with the Nurlu genotype (Fig. 2). However, it was determined that the relationship of this genotype, especially with fatty acids, was negative (blue). It has been determined that Ferraduel and Nonpareil cultivars are closely related to each other and that these varieties have a weak relationship, especially in terms of the physical properties and nutritional element contents of the fruit. It was determined that Ak and Sıra genotypes were in the same group when evaluated in terms of all characteristics and had a highly significant relationship, especially in terms of linolenic and malic acid (Fig. 2).
3.9. Relationship between varieties and genotypes and the chemical properties of the fruit
The PCA graph of the amounts of organic acids, phenolic compounds, nutrients, fatty acids and antioxidant contents in almond genotypes and cultivars is given in Fig. 3. The interaction rate between cultivars and genotypes and the chemical content of the fruit was determined as 55.9% (PCA1 + PCA2). It was observed that Nurlu genotype was separated from others, and Nonpareil cultivar and Sıra genotype were located on the same plane (4th region). It was determined that other fatty acids other than linoleic acid had a positive relationship and this relationship was especially concentrated in region 1, where the Ferraduel was found. It has been determined that antioxidant activity, catechin,o- coumaric and succinic acid have a positive relationship, but these ingredients have a negative relationship, especially with P, K, Cu and malic acid. It has also been observed that p-coumaric acid has an opposite relationship with iron. Ferulic acid, malic acid, linoleic acid, o-coumaric acid, P, K, Ca, Cu and Zn were found to have a positive relationship and it was determined that only the Ferragnes cultivar was found in the same region (region 3) with these characteristics. It was also determined that citric acid had a negative relationship with the amount of stearic acid, linolenic acid, oleic acid and total lipid. Also, Nurlu and Ak genotypes were located in the 3rd region and only citric acid and gallic acid had a positive relationship here (Fig. 3). In parallel with this study, Gouta et al. (2021) reported that linoleic acid and oleic acid had an opposite relationship in their study on different almond varieties. However, contrary to this study, it was stated that palmitic acid and linoleic acid have a linear relationship. It is thought that the difference may occur depending on the differences in the varieties used and the growing regions. In another study, Özcan et al. (2020) obtained similar findings as this study, in different genotypes and reported that linoleic acid has an opposite relationship with other fatty acids. Contrary to this study, in the study of Ferradue l and Ferragnes varieties, it was determined that the amount of phenolic compounds and the amount of oil had an opposite relationship (Sakar et al. 2017). However, in this study, the relationship between gallic acid, rutin and catechin was supported by Özcan et al. (2021).