Structural and Chemical Analysis of three regions in Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis)

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4372670/v1

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Structural and Chemical Analysis of three regions in Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis)

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4372670/v1

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This study focuses on three different regions of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis): a inner layer (IB), middle layer (MB) and outer layer (OB), to comprehensively characterize the structural features, chemical composition (ash, extractives and lignin contents) and the lignin monomeric composition as determined by analytical pyrolysis. Bamboo has a noticeable gradient anatomical pattern, with an increasing proportion of vascular bundles from IB to OB and a gradual decrease in the proportion of parenchyma tissues. In terms of chemical composition, the ash, extractives and acid-soluble lignin content gradually decrease from IB to OB. The holocellulose content follows the trend: IB (62.8%) < OB (65.9%) < MB (66.3%) while the acid-insoluble lignin content exhibits the opposite trend: IB (22.6%) > OB (17.8%) > MB (17.7%). Pyrolysis products reveal the diversity of carbohydrates and lignin derivatives, with a lignin monomeric composition rich in syringyl and guaiacyl units and lower amounts of H-units: IB has a H:G:S relation of 18:26:55, MB has 15:27:58 and OB 15:40:45; S/G ratio values were respectively 1.22, 1.46 and 0.99. A comprehensive analysis highlights significant gradient variations in the structure and chemistry of bamboo, providing robust support for the classification and refinement methods of bamboo residues for potential applications.

Bamboo valorization

Gradient Structure

Physicochemical Properties

Biorefinery

Phyllostachys edulis, also known Phyllostachys pubescens and Phyllostachys heterocycle, is commonly referred to as Moso bamboo, is a member of the Bambusoideae subfamily within the Poaceae family. Its widespread recognition underscores its global importance as a key bamboo species used for several industries in China and other countries, for example in traditional medicine, but also the textile industry (production of rayon), furniture, construction, pulp and paper, musical instruments, food additives (Asmare et al. 2024).

To have an idea about the studies on bamboo, it was made a research in Scopus data base using “Phyllostachys edulis” as keyword. The results are presented in Figs. 1 and 2. It is clear that there is an increasing interest about bamboo as shown in Fig. 1 where the publications have increased from 1 article in 1937 to about 44 articles published this until April 2024. The subject area according to Scopus definition are diverse; by starting with the main ones: Agricultural and Biological sciences (number of publications: 713), Environmental sciences (333), Biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology (218), material science (77), Chemistry (62), Engineering (44) Chemical Engineering (43), Medicine (36), Multidisciplinary (30), Immunology and Microbiology (29), as can be seen in Fig. 2.

Figure 1

In total only 12 reviews were published, as an example it was evaluated the use of bamboo for medium-density fiberboards panels (Yang et al. 2014), but also for pulp production (Runge and Paul 2015), or even the use of leaves for the extraction of compounds with interest (Verma et al. 2022). In fact, along the years, several studies have focused on more valorization routes for this species and different parts of the plant, in particular in respect of its chemical components, such as extractives (flavonoides) and their antioxidant activity (Guo et al. 2013) and more recently its application in fiber-reinforced composites (Wei et al. 2022) or synthetic fibres (Asmare et al. 2024).

Figure 2

The wide applications of bamboo are attributed by its anatomical and chemical characteristics. From an anatomical perspective, the bamboo culm is characterized by the presence of vascular bundles and parenchyma tissue (Liese 1987a). Vascular bundles, provide strength to bamboo and consist of one or two protoxylems, two large metaxylem vessels, and a thin-walled phloem composed of sieve tubes linked to companion cells (Liese 1987b). Surrounding these vital elements are sclerenchymatous fibers, providing structural support. The arrangement and composition of these components differ both radially and axially within the culm, resulting in variations in bamboo properties across species and in different directions (Liese 1998; Jeon et al. 2018) Recently, it was demonstrated a concentration of vascular bundles in the epidermal side producing mechanical strength more effectively compared to an uniform distribution (Tsuyama et al. 2023). Therefore, bamboo species presents different characteristics from the inner to outer cross-section, displaying a transitional and non-uniform structure where one form of structure, component, or phase gradually transitions to another. Simultaneously, its microscopic structure, physicochemical properties and mechanical strength parameters undergo stepwise changes (Li et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2016). On one hand, the gradient properties of bamboo can be strategically designed for large-scale bamboo engineering materials in the fields of construction and engineering, such as bamboo veneer laminated lumber and reconstituted bamboo materials (Wei et al. 2023; Zhang et al. 2021). On the other hand, the outermost layers of bamboo can lead to uneven interfaces in engineering materials. Consequently, producers often choose to shave these layers, leaving behind a substantial amount of low-value residues (Li et al. 2023). Current residue treatment methods mostly use direct incineration and provide heat to the factory, but this process has the characteristics of low calorific value and unstable combustion. Therefore, biomass refining becomes an effective method to deal with these residues. From a chemical perspective Moso bamboo possesses a lignin content ranging from 14.6–29.1%, comprising three structural units: guaiacyl (G), syringyl (S) and p-hydroxyphenyl (H) (Liang et al. 2018; Dong et al. 2015; Wi et al. 2017). Lignin is a three-dimensional macromolecule formed by carbon-carbon and ether linkages of benzyl propane-type monomers, containing various active functional groups such as hydroxyl, aldehyde, ketone, carboxyl and methoxy. These structural characteristics designate it as a potential raw material for high-value-added chemical products, particularly phenolic compounds. Meantime, the holocellulose content ranges from 60–70%, making it suitable for the production of carboxymethyl cellulose, xylitol and bamboo charcoal (Peng et al. 2014; Chaturvedi et al. 2023). These products find wide applications as dispersants, emulsifiers, xylitol sweeteners and adsorbents, among other uses. Additionally, bamboo contains abundant organic compounds, including polysaccharides and salicylic acid. The pressing method to extract fresh bamboo juice in China can be employed for brewing distinctive bamboo juice wine or health beverages. Therefore, the residual materials from bamboo processing have become a noteworthy resource in biorefinery, serving high-value purposes in the production of chemicals and materials.

Overall, the gradient structure of bamboo material results in significant variation in chemical composition across different sections. This variation may be considered a drawback, especially when aiming to provide stable and consistent raw materials for industrial purposes. However, it can also be regarded as a source of almost limitless diversity in compounds, leading to a broader range of potential bio-based products. Currently, there is limited systematic research on the correlation between the different parts of bamboo, its chemical composition and, in particular, lignin. It is essential to conduct detailed investigations into the chemical components and lignin monomers of these three regions to advance the process of "bamboo biorefinery". In this study, the structural features and chemical analyses were performed on different radial parts of bamboo called here as: inner bamboo (IB), middle bamboo (MB) and outer bamboo (OB) to comprehensively understand their characteristics by summative analysis and analytical pyrolysis (Py-GC/MS). This research not only provides theoretical guidance for biomass pyrolysis liquefaction technology but also offers technical support for catalytic pyrolysis aimed at producing high-value-added chemical products.

Sample preparation

The bamboo used in this study was Phyllostachys edulis, sourced from Yibin City, Sichuan Province, China. The bamboo was one year old, a height of 9 m, an average breast diameter of 10 cm and a thickness of 16 mm. Bamboo stalks were harvested at approximately 1.5 m above the ground from the whole bamboo culm, serving as the experimental material. The bamboo stalks were divided into an average of 5 layers from the inner to the outer layers. Three layers, representing IB, MB and OB, were selected for experimentation, as presented in Fig. 3. The bamboo components underwent knife milling using a Retsch SM2000 grinding machine, were sieved and sealed after obtaining bamboo powder with a particle size ranging from 0 to 60 mesh. The samples were then placed in a constant temperature and humidity chamber to equilibrate moisture content.

Figure 3

Microstructural analysis

The complete bamboo samples were subjected to micro-CT scanning (nano Bruker) with a precision of 4.5 micrometers. The original shadow projections were reconstructed into multiple sets of parallel X-ray micrographs. Individual vascular bundles were characterized using a scanning electron microscope (Quanta2000, PHILIPS Ins.).

Summative chemical analysis

The chemical composition of the three regions, namely ash, total extractives, total lignin and holocellulose, were determined following methods cited in the literature (Costa et al. 2023). Ash content was measured by weighing the residue after overnight incineration at 525°C, following the TAPPI standard T211om-93. The total extractives content was determined through successive extractions using dichloromethane, ethanol and water in a Soxhlet apparatus. Dichloromethane was used for 6 h, followed by ethanol (16 h) and water (16 h). The extracts from the extraction thimbles were quantified by weighing after each extraction, based on the methods described by Neiva et al. 2018 and Miranda et al. 2012. The acid soluble and Klason lignin were determined on extractive-free materials. Klason lignin was determined through acid hydrolysis following the TAPPI standard T222 om-88. For a 0.35 g sample, sulfuric acid (72%, 3.0 mL) was added, stirred for 1 hour at 30°C, diluted to a 3 wt% H2SO4 concentration and further hydrolyzed for 1 h at 120°C. Klason lignin was determined by weighing the mass of solid residue after filtration in a G4-crucible, thorough washing with distilled water and subsequent drying in an oven. Klason lignin was quantified as the mass of solid residue corrected for ash content, as described above. The soluble lignin was determined by UV-spectrophotometry, measuring the absorbance of the hydrolysis products of the Klason lignin procedure at 205 nm, following the TAPPI standard UM250 om-83. The total lignin content was calculated as the sum of acid soluble and Klason lignin.

Pyrolysis-GC/MS

The three bamboo extractives-free samples and their correspondent Klason lignins were ball-ground to powder in a Retsch MM200 mixer ball. The powder was subsequently dried in a vacuum oven under phosphorus pentoxide conditions. Approximately 0.15 mg of each sample underwent pyrolysis at 550°C (1 min) using a 5150 CDS apparatus connected to an Agilent GC 7980B, which was equipped with a ZB-1701 fused-silica capillary column (60 m × 0.25 mm i.d. × 0.25 µm film thickness) and an Agilent 5977B mass selective detector (EI at 70 eV). The GC oven temperature was programmed as follows: started at 40°C (held for 4 min), increased to 70°C at a rate of 10°C/min, further raised to 100°C at 5°C/min, then to 265°C at 3°C/min (held for 3 min) and finally to 270°C at 5°C/min (held for 9 min). The injector and GC/MS interface were maintained at temperatures of 270 and 280°C, respectively. Helium with a total flow of 1 mL/min was employed as the carrier gas. Compound identification was performed by comparing the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) spectra with Wiley, NIST libraries and literature (Ralph and Hatfield 1991).

Physicalanatomical properties

A detailed structural analysis of bamboo is presented in Fig. 4, where, bamboo material is depicted as a composite composed of fibrous sheaths vessels and parenchyma cells (Fig. 4.a). Additionally, a significant amount of granular polysaccharide material, typically composed of glucose molecules and serving as a common storage form in plant cells, is observed within the parenchyma cells. The Fig. 4.b illustrates an increasing proportion of vascular bundles from IB to OB. Vascular bundles on the IB side are larger and sparsely distributed, whereas those on the OB side are smaller, densely packed and exhibit a noticeable gradient structure. The Fig. 4.c offers an additional interpretation of the gradient structure in the longitudinal direction from IB to OB. Vascular bundles, consisting of fibrous sheaths and vessels, show a penetrating distribution. The area of porous regions gradually decreases, with an increasing proportion of fibrous sheath area to the total area. The surface tissue transitions from a loose to a dense configuration, resulting in heightened density and smoothness (Wei et al. 2022).

Figure 4

Chemical analysis

Bamboo summative analysis results is presented in Table 1. OB exhibits the lowest ash content (1.4%), while MB (2.9%) and IB (3.3%) presented a significantly high ash, possibly indicating the presence of more inorganic minerals, such as silica, calcium, or potassium, serving as a potential defense mechanism (Franceschi et al. 205; Yusoff et al. 2021), but is less favorable when using bamboo as energy sources for direct combustion, particle manufacturing and combustion block production.

Table 1

Chemical composition of bamboo. All values are expressed relative to the oven dry raw material (%).
Components (% o.d. material)	Inner Bamboo (IB)	Middle Bamboo (MB)	Outer Bamboo (OB)
Ash	3.3	2.9	1.4
Total extractives	13.8	11.0	8.7
Dichloromethane	0.2	0.1	0.3
Ethanol	9.1	7.2	4.4
Water	4.5	3.7	3.9
Total lignin	20.1	19.8	24.0
Klason lignin	17.8	17.8	22.7
Soluble lignin	2.2	2.0	1.3
Holocellulose	62.9	66.4	66.0

The extractive content is highest in the IB at 13.8%, followed by the middle layer (ML) at 11.0%, and is lowest in the OB with 8.7%, showing a gradient descent trend in terms of structure. This may be explained by the presence of more parenchyma cells and less vascular bundles in the IB compared to OB, according to Jia et al. (2016) parenchyma cells have more extractives and hemicelluloses while vascular bundles have more cellulose. The OB has the highest content of non-polar extractives (0.3%). The polar extractives become the predominant contributor to the total extractive content. From inside to outside, the total content of polar extractives (including ethanol and water extractives) measured 13.4%, 10.9% and 8.4%, respectively. This phenomenon can be attributed to the structural characteristics of bamboo, where the increase in the relative abundance of thin-walled cells from the IB to the MB (Fig. 4.a) contributes to the higher content of polar extracts such as starch granules (Huang et al. 2023).

The lignin content in bamboo ranged from 19.8–24.0%, with OB exhibiting a 4.2% higher lignin content than MB. This transformation primarily signifies the gradual increase in lignification of bamboo from the inner (IB) to outer layer (OB). These values are in the range of values reported by Wen et al. (2013) for Klason lignin of Moso bamboo stem (25.1%) and pith regions (27.8%). The holocellulose content exhibited comparable variation, ranging from 62.9–66.4%. This numerical range is similar to the holocellulose content of Japanese Moso bamboo at 65.6% (Kato et al. 2014), but higher than that of Madu bamboo at 57.3% (Yusoff et al. 2021).

Table 1

Analytical pyrolysis

The bomboo sample (free from extractives) were also characterized by analytical pyrolysis. The pyrograms of the inner, middle and outer bamboo are presented in Fig. 5 and their Klason lignins is presented in Fig. 6. A resume of the pyrolsis results is presented in Table 2 and in Annex is presented a complete Table with the identified compounds and their relative percentage. The inner and outer bamboo presented similar values of carbohydrates content (59.4 and 59.1%), while total lignin reached 25.0 and 27.0%. The middle bamboo sample obtainable a similar value of lignin when compared to outer bamboo (27.2 vs. 27.0%). The samples had a lignin monomeric composition rich in syringyl units (10.5 to 12.7%), followed by guaiacyl units (8.6 to 10.8%) and the p-hydroxyphenyl units round 5.8%. Therefore, the H:G:S relation was 1:1.4:1.8 (IB), 1:1.5:2.2 (MB) and 1:1.9:1.9 (OB). The S/G ratio decreased from the inner (1.22) to the outer bamboo (0.99), while the middle presented the highest values (1.46), this may be attributed to a slightly increase in S-units in the middle bamboo compared to the IB (42 to 47% of total lignin).

Table 2

Resume of the pyrolysis results of bamboo and Klason lignin samples. All values are expressed as percentage of total chromatographic area.
	Inner Bamboo (IB)	Middle Bamboo (MB)	Outer Bamboo (OB)	Klason lignin IB	Klason lignin MB	Klason lignin OB
Total carbohydrates	59.4	56.4	59.1	5.3	0.8	3.3
Total lignin	25.0	27.2	27.0	75.5	87.8	73.2
Others	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.7
Lignin monomeric composition (% of lignin)
H	24	21	21	18	15	15
G	34	32	40	26	27	40
S	42	47	39	55	58	45
H:G:S relation	1: 1.4: 1.8	1: 1.5: 2.2	1: 1.9: 1.9	1: 1.4: 3.0	1: 1.8: 3.9	1: 2.7: 2.9
S/G ratio	1.22	1.46	0.99	2.10	2.15	1.10
C/L ratio	2.4	2.1	2.2	0.07	0.01	0.04

Table 2

Table 3 illustrates some of the pyrolysis products of bamboo, derivatives from carbohydrates, such as 2-oxo-propanal (peak 1), hydroxyacetaldehyde (peak 2), 4-hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-(2H)-pyran-2-one (peak 27), and levoglucosan (peak 76). The lignin derivatives are composed of H-units (as an example are presented phenol and 4-vinylphenol), G-units (guaiacol and 4-vinylguaiacol) and S-units (syringol and trans 4-propenylsyringol).

Table 3

Some of the main compounds attained by analytical pyrolysis of bamboo.
Carbohydrates derivatives		Lignin derivatives
2-oxo-propanal (peak 1)	hydroxyacetaldehyde (peak 2)	phenol (peak 30)	guaiacol (peak 32)	syringol (peak 53)

4-hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-(2H)-pyran-2-one (peak 27)	levoglucosan (peak 76)	4-vinylphenol (peak 49)	4-vinylguaiacol (peak 50)	trans 4-propenylsyringol (peak 77)

Table 3

As can be seen in Fig. 5, no great differences were found between the bamboo samples since all presented the same compounds but with slightly difference in relative percentage. In the beginning of the pyrogram the main compounds are carbohydrates derivatives. The compounds with higher than 3% were for example 2-oxo-propanal (peak 1), hydroxyacetaldehyde (peak 2), acetic acid (peak 3), 4-hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-(2H)-pyran-2-one (peak 27). After 16 min, the lignin derivatives start to appear, either from H- G- or S-skeleton. The lignin derivative compounds with more than 3% where 4-vinylphenol (peak 49) and 4-vinylguaiacol (peak 50). At around 30 min, a cellulose derivative, levoglucosan (peak 76) appears overlapped with two lignin derivatives, 4-propinylsyringol (peak 75) and trans 4-propenylsyringol (peak 77), as can be seen in Fig. 5.

Figure 5

In the case of the Klason lignin samples, the pyrograms shown in Fig. 6, reveal the presence of almost no carbohydrates, it was only possible to detect acetic acid (peak 3, on average 0.8%) in the inner and outer bamboo samples, but also some levoglucosan (peak 76, on average 1.3%). The compounds with an average higher than 3% of total chromatographic area were: 4-methylsyringol (peak 59, 3.9%), 4-vinylsyringol (peak 68, 4.0%), trans 4-propenylsyringol (peak 77, 4.6%), guaiacol (peak 32, 5.3%), 4-vinylguaiacol (peak 50, 5.5%), 4-methylsyringol (peak 59, 5.8%), 4-vinylphenol (peak 49, 6.4%), syringol (peak 53, 8.8%). Overall, all the lignin samples presented similar amounts of H-units (185 − 18% of total lignin), while the inner bamboo presented almost twice more S-units compared to G-units (55 vs. 26% of total lignin). On the opposite, the outer bamboo present just slightly more S-units (45 vs. 40%). This behavior was more pronounced in milled lignin from bamboo culm (Phyllostachys pubescens) where the green region (outer) was rich in G units (54%) followed by S-units (40%) and only 5.9% for H-units, while yellow region (inner) the values were 44%, 50% and 5.2%; it was reported a S/G ratio between 0.74 (green) to 1.15 (yellow), using 13C and 2D HSQC NMR analysis (Huang et al., 2016). These values are lower compared to the values reported for milled lignin of moso bamboo stem (2.2) and pith (3.7, Wen et al., 2013).

Overall, the lignin composition in different bamboo species has been reported as an HGS type of lignin with more G- and S-units compared to H-units, linked together mainly by β-O-4´ aryl ether linkages and with lower β-β´, β-5´ and β-1´ carbon-to-carbon linkages (Verma et al. 2021). In particular for moso bamboo it was reported for the milled lignin besides the predominance of intermonomeric linkages of the type β-O-4 (45–49 per 100 C 9 units), small amounts of resinols (3.6–7.4), tetrahydrofuran (2.0-2.3), phenylcoumaran (2.8–4.5), spirodienones (1.3–2.3), and α-, β-diaryl ethers (2.8–2.9, Wen et al. 2013).

Figure 6

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the unique gradient structure, chemical properties and pyrolysis products of bamboo, offering profound insights for the application and enhancement of bamboo industrial residues. From the anatomical bamboo exhibits a gradient structure from inner layer (IB) to the outer layer (OB): there is a trend of gradually smaller and denser vascular bundle morphology. Bamboo presented some chemical differences in the radial direction: IB, MB and OB show a gradient decrease in ashes and polar extractives, but an increase of lignin and holocellulose. Bamboo lignin was SGH type, with a composition rich in S (45–58%) and G-units (26–40%) and low amounts of H-units (15–18%). The lignin composition varied in the three regions studied, where the S/G ratio ranged from 1.22 (IB) to 0.99 (OB). Understanding the chemical composition of bamboo, particularly in its different regions, is essential for optimizing its utilization and maximizing its value as a feedstock in various industrial applications.

Author Contribution

A.L. and S.G. wrote the main manuscript text, prepared figures and tables. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Joaquina Silva for her support during chemical analysis.

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StructuralandChemicalAnalysisofthreeregionsinBambooSupllementaryMaterial.docx

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Structural and Chemical Analysis of three regions in Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis)

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Experimental

Sample preparation

Microstructural analysis

Summative chemical analysis

Pyrolysis-GC/MS

Results and discussion

Physicalanatomical properties

Chemical analysis

Analytical pyrolysis

Conclusion

Declarations

Author Contribution

Acknowledgement

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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