Organic Nutrient Management Affecting Growth and Yield in Strawberry (Fragaria× ananasa Duch.) cv. Flavia under Punjab Conditions

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4468582/v1

The demand for increased food production while minimizing environmental impacts poses a significant challenge for sustainable agricultural intensification. Organic farming is considered eco-friendly but less productive compared to conventional farming. To boost yields, a balanced application of organic manures, bio-fertilizers, and inorganic fertilizers is recommended. However, appropriate combinations of organic sources alone can also meet crop requirements. Therefore, an experiment was conducted at Lovely Professional University, Punjab, to investigate the effect of different organic sources of nutrients, alone or in combinations, on the growth and yield attributes of the strawberry cultivar Flavia. The study comprised ten treatments structured using a randomized block design (RBD). The results indicated that all treatments contributed to increased growth and yield of strawberry compared to the control, but treatment combination including 60% RDN – 30% through Vermicompost (90 g/m²) + 30% through neem cake (45 g/m²) and biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya + VAM each @ 50 mL/plant (T₉) resulted in significant increase in vegetative growth parameters viz. plant height (6.7 and 13.33 cm), plant spread EW (15.87 and 24.63 cm), plant spread NS (14.00 and 25.59 cm), and number of trifoliate leaves (5.97 and 17.40) at 45 and 90 days after planting (DAP) respectively. Similarly, this treatment combination also contributed to maximum chlorophyll index (57.90 SPAD), leaf area (48.76 cm²) and stem girth (3.41 cm) along with greater yield and yield attributing parameters such as number of fruits per plant (28.14), average berry weight (16.53 g), yield per plant (447.88 g) and yield efficiency (0.47 kg/cm²) compared to other treatment combinations and control.

Organic formulations

organic manures

strawberry

vegetative growth

Yield

Strawberries are in greater demand on a global scale, due to its high nutritional value, antioxidant content, and delightful taste. Since strawberry production primarily takes place on small rural holdings, it is crucial for both economic and social reasons to aggregate family labour (Bengtsson, 2021). It is commonly known that the fertilization, which supplies the plants with vital nutrients, is crucial for achieving maximum development and increased output but the excessive use of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides in conventional strawberry cultivation is one issue.

According to Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (2023), about 2449 million tonnes of chemical pesticides and biopesticides are consumed every year for fruit production in India. As a result of the heavy loads of fertilizers and pesticides used in the predominant cultivation system, strawberries are one of the four crops with the greatest levels of pesticide contamination (Cecatto et al., 2013). Despite the negative impacts, it has been noted that the use of inorganic fertilizers in strawberry production is increasing significantly in order to achieve greater yield per hectare (Yatoo et al., 2021). A number of solutions have been put forth for minimizing these issues, but organic farming stands out because it not only safeguards the ecosystem but also produces better crops, reduces the prevalence of pests and diseases, improves total fructification, and increases commercial production (Stagnari et al., 2010; Khandaker et al., 2017).

Organic farming is based on management techniques that restore, maintain, and improve ecological equilibrium with a minimal usage of off-farm inputs (Fess and Benedito 2018). Organic resources ranging from animal manures, crop residues, leguminous cover crops, household composts, leguminous and non-leguminous trees and shrubs, are frequently employed as significant nutrient sources for crops. Nevertheless, their combined use is more efficient than their sole applications (Sileshi et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2019). Apart from these common organic resources, there are several other advanced amendments such as biochar, biofertilizers, neem cake, and organic formulations including Panchgavya, Jeevamrita and Amritpani that are frequently utilized for agricultural purposes.

Applying organic manures not only provides plants with essential nutrients but also enhances soil fertility by improving its structure and increasing organic matter concentration (Kok et al., 2023). Vermicompost application stimulates root growth and nutrient absorption, resulting in higher production (Lim et al., 2015) while the biochar, a byproduct of biomass pyrolysis, aids in long-term carbon sequestration, holding onto water and nutrients and releasing them slowly over time (Shukla et al., 2019, Yang et al., 2020). Neem cake enhances rhizosphere microbiota, soil structure, aeration, and water holding capacity, promoting root development and providing vital nutrients for crop growth while minimizing the pest attack (Gupta, 2022).

Panchgavya contains essential macro and micronutrients and growth hormones crucial for plant development, enhancing soil biological activity and promoting beneficial microorganisms. In addition to bulky organic manures, biofertilizers like vascular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) aid in uptake of essential elements in the soil, particularly phosphorus (Kok et al., 2023).

Although average and marketable yields of strawberry are lower under organic cultivation than under conventional cultivation (Samtani et al., 2019), market conditions led to higher returns per hectare due to prices that were 50% higher. However, research on the single and combined application of organic manures under various strawberry cultivars is still in early stages. Despite the fact that Punjab has many great sources of organic matter, particularly animal manure and plant residues that are cheap and easily available, very few studies on organic cultivation have been conducted in the region. Therefore, an experiment was conducted in order to better understand the effect of different organic matter resources and organic formulation combinations on strawberry growth and yield under the Punjab conditions.

2.1. Growth conditions and plant material

The present experimental study was carried out in the open field conditions of Research and Teaching Farms of Lovely Professional University, Punjab (India) during 2021–2022. This region being under subtropical climate, experiences summers that are mostly hot and dry and winters that are cold and foggy. The soil on the experimental plot possessed a silty loam texture and pH of slightly acidic to neutral reaction, making it ideal for strawberry cultivation. The experimental site falls under Doaba region of Punjab (geographical position 30Â° 57` to 32Â° 7` N and 75Â° 4` to 76Â° 30` E) located at an altitude of 270–300 m above msl and experiences ~ 2029 mm annual precipitation. For the experiment, healthy runners of the cultivar Flavia were procured from a certified organic nursery located in Hoshiarpur district of Punjab.

2.2. Experimental design, treatment details and statistical analysis

The experiment included ten treatments and was laid in a randomized block design (RBD), with three replicates. Each replicate contained 10 units of plants. Different treatments were designed as T₁ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (300 g/m²), T₂ − 100% RDN through neem cake (150 g/m²), T₃ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (150 g/m² ) + neem cake (75 g/m²), T₄ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (240 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₅ − 80% RDN through neem cake (120 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₆ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (120 g/m²) + neem cake (60 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₇ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (180 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₈ − 60% RDN through neem cake (90 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₉ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (90 g/m²) + neem cake (45 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant) + VAM (50 ml/plant) and T₁₀ –control. For control, neither organic manures nor inorganic fertilizers were applied except for the irrigation water. The data generated during the course of the study was subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS v. 21 Software and Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was applied to determine the homogeneous sets of treatments in order to draw conclusions (P ≤ 5%).

2.3. Soil solarization and preparation of organic formulations

Before the commencement of experiment, the soil of the experimental site was subjected to soil solarization using an opaque plastic sheet (black sheet) throughout the humid summer months (from July to September)), followed by field preparation during the last week of September. The preparation of organic formulations such as Panchgavya and Amritpani was started 15 days prior to planting as per the protocols listed by Raghavendra et al. (2014) and Shekh et al. (2018) by fermenting the different organic materials and byproducts of indigenous cattle such as cow dung, cow urine, cow ghee, cow milk and cow curd for 2 weeks respectively, obtained from a nearby dairy farm in Phagwara city of Punjab.

2.4. Planting, treatment application and crop management

Plantation of strawberry was done during mid-October on 15 cm raised beds at a spacing of 30 × 30 cm on a clear weather day early in the morning. Before planting, the runners were treated with different concentrations of VAM @ 25 and 50 mL/plant in accordance with treatment details. The application of various organic manures began during the crown initiation and establishment stage. Ten days following plant establishment, a 3–4 cm thick layer of chopped paddy straw mulch was applied to the beds and repeated once in the middle of the season for rest of the cropping period. At three different plant growth stages, including the emergence of new leaves, vegetative growth, and flowering, Panchgavya and Amritpani were applied through foliar spray as per the treatment details. The irrigation was applied in the alternate furrows through flooding at 3 days interval during early stage and at weekly intervals thereafter. Proper sanitation measures and intercultural operations were maintained during the cropping season to keep pests away.

2.5. Growth and yield parameters

To evaluate the impact of different treatments on key plant development characteristics, data collections were conducted at two significant time points: 45 days and 90 days after planting (DAP). The observations included plant height (cm), plant spread in both the east-west (EW) and north-south (NS) directions (cm), and the number of trifoliate leaves per plant. For a comprehensive analysis, some sophisticated measurement tools were employed. Leaf area was measured using a benchtop LICOR-3100 leaf area meter, and results were expressed in square centimetres (cm²). The leaf chlorophyll index was assessed with a SPAD-502 meter during the peak vegetative growth stage (60 DAP), providing measurements in SPAD units. As the cropping season was ended, stem girth was recorded, documenting the results in centimetres (cm). Post-fruiting, the data were meticulously recorded on yield associated metrics, including average berry weight (g), number of berries per plant, yield per plant (g), and yield efficiency (kg/cm²). The harvests were conducted at five-day intervals, totalling 8–10 harvestings throughout the growing period. Data collection encompassed number of marketable berries, average berry weight (g), total yield per plant (g) and yield efficiency (YE) on a leaf area basis, representing the ratio of kilograms to square centimetres (kg/cm²) of leaf area.

3.1. Growth indexes and chlorophyll index

Under the organic nutrition regime, there were notable variations in plant height, plant spread in both east-west (EW) and north-south (NS) directions, and the number of trifoliate leaves across different treatments, as outlined in Table 1. Treatment combination 60% RDN through Vermicompost (90 g/m²) + 30% through neem cake (45 g/m²) and biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya + VAM each 50 ml/plant (T₉) emerged as the most favourable treatment, showcasing superior vegetative growth outcomes in comparison to other treatments. In particular, T₉ exhibited the highest plant height, reaching 6.73 cm and 13.33 cm at 45 and 90 days after planting (DAP), respectively. Following closely was treatment combination 60% RDN through Vermicompost (180 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya + VAM each @ 50 ml/plant (T₆), with plant heights of 6.69 cm and 12.10 cm at the respective time points. Conversely, the control group (T₁₀) displayed the least impressive performance, with minimum plant heights recorded at 3.71 cm and 10.12 cm at 45 and 90 DAP, respectively.

Table 1

Effect of organic nutrition management on plant height, plant spread and no. of trifoliate leaves of strawberry cv. Flavia.
Treatments	Plant height (cm)		Plant spread EW (cm)		Plant spread NS (cm)		No. of trifoliate leaves per plant
Treatments	45 DAP	90 DAP	45 DAP	90 DAP	45 DAP	90 DAP	45 DAP	90 DAP
T₁	4.34^b	10.57^ab	10.61^ab	17.97^b	9.90^a	17.87^a	4.20^a	14.21^a
T₂	4.44^bc	10.68^ab	10.70^bc	18.30^b	10.33^b	18.78^b	4.40^a	14.20^a
T₃	4.70^cd	11.00^b	11.03^bc	19.27^c	10.60^b	19.67^b	4.77^b	14.27^a
T₄	5.04^e	11.06^b	14.07^d	20.43^d	11.83^c	21.45^c	5.07^c	14.83^ab
T₅	4.82^de	11.02^b	11.53^c	19.50^c	10.80^c	20.89^c	4.87^bc	14.30^a
T₆	6.69^f	12.10^c	14.90^e	22.23^e	13.63^d	23.64^d	5.80^d	15.50^b
T₇	5.73^e	11.89^c	14.67^de	21.60^de	13.47^d	22.78^d	5.79^d	15.27^b
T₈	5.40^f	11.69^c	14.40^de	20.83^de	13.13^c	21.64^c	5.77^d	15.20^b
T₉	6.73^f	13.33^d	15.87^e	24.63^f	14.00^e	25.59^e	5.97^d	17.40^c
T₁₀	3.71^a	10.12^a	10.23^a	16.50^a	8.97^a	16.98^a	4.17^a	14.09^a
*Differences marked by distinct letters in the same column are statistically significant (P < 0.05).

Where, T₁ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (300 g/m²), T₂ − 100% RDN through neem cake (150 g/m²), T₃ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (150 g/m² ) + neem cake (75 g/m²), T₄ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (240 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₅ − 80% RDN through neem cake (120 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₆ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (120 g/m²) + neem cake (60 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₇ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (180 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₈ − 60% RDN through neem cake (90 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₉ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (90 g/m²) + neem cake (45 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant) + VAM (50 ml/plant) and T₁₀ –control.

Similarly, T₉ reflected the most expansive plant spread, excelling in both the east-west (EW) and north-south (NS) directions. At 45 and 90 DAP, T₉ demonstrated remarkable plant spread values of 15.87 cm and 24.63 cm (EW) and 14.00 cm and 25.49 cm (NS), respectively. The number of trifoliate leaves was also significantly higher under T₉, registering 5.97 and 17.40 at 45 and 90 DAP.

Furthermore, T₉ exhibited superiority in other key growth parameters, including leaf area (48.76 cm²), stem girth (3.41 cm), and chlorophyll index (57.90 SPAD), surpassing the performance of other treatments and the control group (Table 2).

Table 2

Effect of organic nutrition management on leaf area, stem girth and chlorophyll index of strawberry cv. Flavia.
Treatments	Leaf area (cm²)	Stem girth (cm)	Chlorophyll index (SPAD)
T₁	40.13^a	2.82^a	47.90^b
T₂	40.23^a	2.96^ab	48.90^bc
T₃	40.45^ab	2.99^ab	50.00^bcd
T₄	43.57^c	3.07^ab	51.73^de
T₅	41.76^b	3.03^ab	50.87^cde
T₆	46.84^d	3.33^cd	55.57^ef
T₇	44.87^c	3.10^bc	53.40^ef
T₈	46.84^d	3.05^ab	52.83^e
T₉	48.76^e	3.41^d	57.90^e
T₁₀	39.55^a	2.84^a	44.47^a
*Differences marked by distinct letters in the same column are statistically significant (P < 0.05).

Where, T₁ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (300 g/m²), T₂ − 100% RDN through neem cake (150 g/m²), T₃ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (150 g/m² ) + neem cake (75 g/m²), T₄ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (240 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₅ − 80% RDN through neem cake (120 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₆ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (120 g/m²) + neem cake (60 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₇ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (180 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₈ − 60% RDN through neem cake (90 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₉ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (90 g/m²) + neem cake (45 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant) + VAM (50 ml/plant) and T₁₀ –control.

These comprehensive findings underscore the overall effectiveness of T₉ in promoting robust vegetative growth and physiological development across multiple aspects compared to alternative treatments and the control. The observed highest vegetative growth of strawberry under T₉ suggests that this treatment combination may excel due to its incorporation of an optimal nutrient concentration and an ideal blend of nutrient-supplying resources, surpassing the effectiveness of other treatment combinations. Vermicompost and neem cake provide a balanced and slow-release supply of essential nutrients, fostering sustained vegetative growth (Maliwal, 2020). The organic nature of these sources also enhances soil structure and microbial activity, contributing to long-term soil health. The inclusion of biochar aimed to improve nutrient retention, water-holding capacity, and microbial activity in the soil by acting as a stable carbon source, promoting nutrient availability and enhancing overall soil fertility (Hue, 2020; Alkharabsheh et al., 2021). Panchgavya along with VAM, establishes a synergistic relationship with the plant roots. This enhances nutrient uptake and promotes healthier vegetative growth (Khare and Tiwari, 2012; Tiwari et al., 2016; Vallimayil and Sekar 2012).

The findings of the present study are comparable to those reported by Kumar et al. (2022) in chilli using Vermicompost and neem cake combined with RDF as inorganic fertilizers which resulted in improved plant development parameters by raising the amount of nutrients in the soil and improved plant access of those nutrients. Likewise, numerous studies have attributed to encouraged stress-free plant development through Vermicompost which served as a source of additional nutrients and moisture along with neem cake which helped reduce sucking pests (Giraddi et al., 2007; Veena et al., 2017; Rohith et al., 2021). Similarly, significant improvements in Vitis vinifera growth and nutritional content using Panchagavya and microbial fertigation have been reported Geetha and Devaraj (2013). Yuniwati and Lestari 2021 recorded better vegetative growth in kale plant (Brassica oleraceae var. acephala L.) using biochar (6 t/ha) and Bio Land organic liquid fertilizer (15 L/ha). Additionally, Reddy et al. (2013) reported better crop growth in papaya cv. Surya, with 75% RDF applied as farm yard manure + Vermicompost, which was significantly superior that in 100% recommended dose of fertilizer and no manure/fertilizer treatment. Similarly, Devi and Singh (2023) recorded maximum values for the parameters like plant height, petiole length and plant spread along with quality attributes and yield in papaya with a treatment combination of 75% RDF through FYM + Vermicompost + 3% Panchagavya + Amritpani.

3.2. Yield and yield attributing traits

The data pertaining to yield and associated traits reveal noteworthy variations, as outlined in Table 3. Similar to vegetative growth parameters, the treatment combination 60% RDN through Vermicompost (90 g/m²) + neem cake (45 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya + VAM each @ 50 ml/plant (T₉) demonstrated superior yield performance compared to other treatments and the control group. T₉ exhibited significant results, with higher numbers of fruits per plant (28.14), increased average berry weight (16.53 g), elevated yield per plant (447.88 g), and greater yield efficiency (0.47 kg/cm²). In contrast, the control group (T₁₀) displayed the least favourable outcomes, with the lowest numbers of fruits per plant (19.08), average berry weight (11.00 g), yield per plant (198.85 g), and yield efficiency (0.29 kg/cm²). This notable difference underscores the effectiveness of the treatment combination in T9, highlighting its potential for enhancing yield and yield-related characteristics compared to the control group.

Table 3

Effect of organic nutrition management on no. of fruits/plant, average berry weight, yield/plant and yield efficiency of strawberry cv. Flavia.
Treatments	No. of fruits/plant	Average berry weight (g)	Yield/plant (g)	Yield efficiency (kg/cm²)
T₁	21.27^b	11.53^a	233.44^ab	0.31^ab
T₂	21.28^b	11.60^ab	234.89^ab	0.31^ab
T₃	21.30^b	11.90^ab	241.41^ab	0.32^ab
T₄	22.15^bc	12.23^ab	259.11^abc	0.34^ab
T₅	21.34^b	11.97^ab	243.67^ab	0.32^ab
T₆	24.19^e	12.58^c	291.29^bc	0.30^ab
T₇	23.06^c	14.87^bc	328.46^c	0.40^bc
T₈	22.76^c	12.44^ab	270.47^abc	0.35^ab
T₉	28.14^d	16.53^c	447.88^d	0.47^c
T₁₀	19.08^a	11.00^a	198.85^a	0.29^a
*Differences marked by distinct letters in the same column are statistically significant (P < 0.05).

Where, T₁ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (300 g/m²), T₂ − 100% RDN through neem cake (150 g/m²), T₃ − 100% RDN through vermicompost (150 g/m² ) + neem cake (75 g/m²), T₄ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (240 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₅ − 80% RDN through neem cake (120 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₆ − 80% RDN through vermicompost (120 g/m²) + neem cake (60 g/m²) + biochar (500 g/m²) + Amritpani (25 ml/plant) + VAM (25 ml/plant), T₇ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (180 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₈ − 60% RDN through neem cake (90 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant ) + VAM (50 ml/plant), T₉ − 60% RDN through vermicompost (90 g/m²) + neem cake (45 g/m²) + biochar (800 g/m²) + Panchgavya (50 ml/plant) + VAM (50 ml/plant) and T₁₀ –control.

Increment in yield and yield related characters may be attributed to healthy vegetative growth which in turn resulted in higher production in T₉. Similar to the outcomes of present study, greater yield of green cabbage has been achieved by Hasan (2018) with the application of treatment combination biochar @ 6 t ha^− 1 and Vermicompost @ 8 t ha^− 1. Similarly, Song et al. 2023 have recorded higher yields in strawberry with the application of 10 t ha^− 1 biochar along with anaerobic soil disinfection. El-Sayed (2024) noted a remarkable enhancement in yield characteristics, including the number of fruits per plant, fruit yield per plant, and fruit yield per feddan, through the application of treatments combining Vermicompost with PSB and VAM, as well as Vermicompost with Azotobacter, Azospirillum, PSB, and VAM in tomato crop. Naidu (2021) recorded highest yield of 3.39 t/ha in sweet orange with a treatment combination of FYM @ 46 kg/plant + Neem cake @ 22 kg/plant + Azospirillum @ 200 g/plant + PSB @ 200 g/plant.

The findings of this study suggested that the treatment combination involving 60% RDN through Vermicompost (90 g/m²), neem cake (45 g/m²), and biochar (800 g/m²), along with Panchgavya and VAM each applied at 50 ml per plant (T₉), exhibited superior vegetative growth indexes such as plant height, spread, leaf count, stem girth, and higher chlorophyll index compared to other treatments while as least growth parameters were observed in control (T₁₀). Additionally, T₉ significantly performed better with respect to yield and yield related attributes like fruit weight, no. of fruits per plant, fruit size, and yield efficiency. This enhancement is attributed to the optimal blend of organic sources utilized in this treatment. Consequently, T₉ emerges as the optimal treatment for strawberry cultivation, offering significant improvements in growth, development, and yield.

Author Contribution

The main manuscript text was authored by Jyoti Bharti Sharma, Nidhi Chauhan, and Khan Jabroot. Madhurima Chaudhuri contributed by compiling the bibliography. Ab. Waheed Wani played a crucial role in ensuring the manuscript's originality by removing any instances of plagiarism, data analysis and making necessary corrections to the text.

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No competing interests reported.

Organic Nutrient Management Affecting Growth and Yield in Strawberry (Fragaria× ananasa Duch.) cv. Flavia under Punjab Conditions

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Growth conditions and plant material

2.2. Experimental design, treatment details and statistical analysis

2.3. Soil solarization and preparation of organic formulations

2.4. Planting, treatment application and crop management

2.5. Growth and yield parameters

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Growth indexes and chlorophyll index

3.2. Yield and yield attributing traits

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1