Radiological impact of the operation of two Steam Power Plants on the activity levels of 232Th, 226Ra and 40K in the sediments at Semarang and Cirebon, Indonesia

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4480254/v1

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Radiological impact of the operation of two Steam Power Plants on the activity levels of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K in the sediments at Semarang and Cirebon, Indonesia

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4480254/v1

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The radiological concentration and distribution of natural radionuclides of 232Th, 226Ra, and 40K in the surface sediments of two steam power plants (SPP) vicinity were investigated. Sediment samples were analyzed for radionuclides, organic matter, and grain size composition. The average concentration activity for 232Th, 226Ra and 40K in Semarang are 71.485 Bq·kg−1; 29.645 Bq·kg−1 and 570.459 Bq·kg−1 and in Cirebon 90.593 Bq·kg−1; 41.709 Bq·kg−1 and 725.788 Bq·kg−1, respectively. According to the Indonesian standards concentrations are still below the recommended values. The radionuclide concentration levels were influenced more by proximity to coal resources, than other factors such as organic content,sediment texture, and hydrodynamic processes. These data can be considered baseline data in this region and used as reference or baseline information. Thus, the data obtained in this study did not show any significant radiological health risk to the ecosystem in nearby areas of two SPP. Radiological parameters such as absorbed dose rate (Din), activity utilization index (AUI), annual effective dose equivalent (AEDEin), annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE), radium equivalent activity (Raeq), and hazard indices (Hex, Hin) showed some excess values when compared to standards.However, they were still comparable to values from other parts of the world.

Natural Radioactivity

Radioecological

Steam Power Plant

Semarang

Cirebon

Some people still believe that all natural nuclear activity is dangerous, but actually, the case is that natural existing radionuclides are ubiquitous (Juriˇsi´c et al, 2024). In some places on the Earth natural radiation is common. Natural radionuclides can be found in almost all environments such as in the atmosphere, rocks, soils, sediments, plants, surface water (river, lake, lagoons, and ocean) and groundwater, and animal and human beings themselves, even in our building materials and houses. Naturally-occurring radioisotope materials (NORM) in the environment are connected to ²²⁶Ra (uranium-series progeny), ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K as the most concern due to their high solubility and mobility (Povinec et al, 2020). ²²⁶Ra is considered an essential natural radionuclide due to having long and biological half-lives and producing an alpha emitter (t½ 1600 y) produced by the decay of ²³⁸U. In comparison, ²²⁸Ra has been created by ²³²Th decay and created a beta emitter with t½ 5.75 y, which is lower 278 times than ²²⁶Ra. Radionuclides ²²⁶Ra and ²²⁸Ra are metabolically similar to calcium; hence, they can be ingested in marine organisms and appreciably deposited on the bone surface (USEPA, 1991; Tan et al, 2023). In growing bone it is easy absorbed and distributed to soft tissues and bones, and finally, will be precipitated to sediment (Mtshawu et al, 2023).

Indonesia as a country that has not used nuclear power plants yet has a major problem to fulfill its energy needs, that tend will increase rapidly in line with economic growth and population growth. To resolve this problem, Indonesia has built more than 150 units of steam power plant (SPP) that use coal as an energy source. Coal fired power generation results in huge amounts of fly ash and bottom ash (Labidi et al, 2024; Zhang et al, 2024), which contain the naturally occurring radionuclides, such as ²¹⁰Po, ²²⁶Ra, ²³⁸U, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K and are a potential health hazard (Mishra, 2004; Sahu et al 2014) and environmental problems, which eventually all settles in sediment. Thus, sediments play a important role in aquatic radioecology. As such sediments provide useful information on environmental and geochemical pollution status (Janadeleh et al., 2018). The activity of natural radionuclides in soil and sediment depends on factors such as texture (Muslim et al., 2017) and chemical composition of each site (Lakehal et al.,2010). Similarly, Zorer (2019) found that the natural radionuclide activity varied according to sampling points, because each area has different geological structure and may have different chemical and mineralogical composition. Factors such as high organic content in sediment (Lee et al 2017; Muslim et al, 2019) and physical conditions of the soil system (Lieser, 1995), water circulation effect the physical and chemical processes in the sediment (Tessier et al., 2011). Therefore, increased radionuclides in some places can be affected by water formation, gas extraction, erosion, weathering and mineral recycling of the terrestrial rocks (Dowdall and Lepland, 2014). Furthermore, (UNSCEAR, 1998) states that this type of radioactivity in the environment, and external exposure due to gamma radiation, occurs at different levels in nature and it varies geographically due to geological changes in each region of the world.

Although much work has been done on radionuclides and their impacts on the Indonesia’s marine environment (Priasetyono et al., 2020; Makmuret al., 2020^a; Makmur et al., 2020^b; Prihatiningsih^a et al., 2020; Prihatiningsih et al., 2020^b) little information is available on radiological impact in the vicinity of steam power plants in Indonesia that use coal as energy sources. The present study was carried out on surface sea sediment the vicinity of two steam power plants in Semarang and Cirebon (Fig. 1) in order to quantify and explain the spatial distribution of the natural radionuclides (²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K), with correlation with organic carbon content and particle size (textures) of sediment. This research also providing a baseline of natural background for the area in order to assess the potential risk for human health due to their presence in the environment by calculating radium equivalent activity (Ra_eq), absorbed dose rate (D_in), annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE_in), annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE), equivalent activity (Ra_eq), activity utilization index (AUI), excess lifetime cancer (ELCR), hazard indices (H_ex, H_in) presented in sediment along the area of two steam power plants in Semarang and Cirebon.

Study area

Semarang and Cirebon are big cities in Indonesia and located in northern part of Java Island close to Java Sea. Semarang is capital city of Central Java Province with population around 2 million inhabitants. Cirebon city as metropolitan city located in West Java province with population 388,854 inhabitants. The government supplies electricity to the inhabitants and have built some units of steam power plant in the coastal area, with more planned over time. Several of these steam power plants have been built in Semarang and Cirebon city with capacity 1469 MW and 1000 MW respectively. To understand the radiological impact of two steam power plants on the marine sediment, some sediments were collected at 6 stations in the vicinity of the steam power plants (Fig. 1). The coordinates and depths of the sampling stations are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Station site information
	Coordinate location
Station		Semarang			Cirebon
	Longitude	Latitude	Depth (m)	Longitude	Latitude	Depth (m)
1	110°25’17.51”E	6°56’27.315”S	1.7	108^o36’45.02”	6^o45’54.60”	1.4
2	110°25’44.987”E	6°56’19 821”S	2.6	108^o36’46.80”	6^o45’35.43”	2.0
3	110°26’23.288”E	6°56’20.376”S	2.3	108^o36’53.78”	6^o45’13.75”	4.0
4	110°26’5.248”E	6°55’29.586”S	5.0	108^o37’06.79”	6^o45’55.00	5.0
5	110°25’9.462”E	6°55’19.039”S	7.0	108^o37’11.86”	6^o45’24.41”	2.0
6	110°25’37.744”E	6°55’12.455”S	7.8	108^o37’11.68”	6^o45’37.77”	1.3

Sediment sampling

Sediment samples were collected using a sediment grab at each station. Sampling was carried out on August 26, 2018 and September 29, 2018 for Semarang and Cirebon stations, respectively. Salinity and pH in sediment were measured in situ. Furthermore, in the laboratory sediments were dried and ground into a fine powder using a Grinder Machine for analysis radioactivity and organic carbon sediment.

Organic carbon analysis

Approximately 1 g of dried sediment was ground and homogenized and then treated with 6 M HCl to remove inorganic carbon (mainly in the form of carbonate). Sediments were subsequently rinsed with double distilled water to remove salts (Xing et al., 2011). Before instrumental analysis, inorganic carbon-free samples were then dried in an oven at 60°C before instrumental analysis. Approx. 50 mg of each sample was weighed into a porcelain crucible and carefully ignited at 550°C in an electric furnace for six hours.

Particle size analysis

Grain size or texture sediment composition of the samples was measured (Kenny, and Sotheran, 2013). This analysis is to characterize the sediment as a frequency distribution of grain sizes. The sediment that has been dried were sieved to be within the range 2000-62 µm.

Radionuclide analytical methods

The radiochemical procedure used for the analysis of radionuclides in the sediments has been carried out following process according to IAEA (1987) using a gamma-ray spectroscopy system using a hyper-pure germanium detector in a low-background configuration (Canberra Genie-2000 that had been calibrated by Certified Reference Material Standard (IAEA-381, IAEA-368, RGU-1). About 1 kg of dry sediment was weighed into a Marinelli cup and was measured their radiation exposure for three days. The counting was performed at the Center for Radiation Safety Technology and Metrology laboratory, National Nuclear Energy Agency, South Jakarta, Indonesia.

Radiological hazard analyses

Calculation of radiological hazard parameters i.e., absorbed dose rate (D_in), activity utilization index (AUI), annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE_in), annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE), radium equivalent activity (Ra_eq) and hazard indices (H_ex, H_in) are using following formula (Ravisankar et al., 2015)

$$Din (nGyh-1) = 0.92CRa + 1.1 CTh +0.080CK$$

$$AEDEin = Din \left(nGyh-1\right)x 8760hy-1 x 0.7 x \frac{103mSv}{109nGy}x 0.8$$

$$AUI=\left(\frac{CRa}{50 Bqkg-1} \right)x fRa +\left(\frac{CTh}{50 Bqkg-1} \right)x fTh +\left(\frac{Ck}{500 Bqkg-1}\right) x fK$$

$$AGDE(\mu Svy-1) = 3.09CRa + 4.18CTh + 0.314Ck$$

$$Raeq = CRa +1.43CTh+0.07Ck$$

$Hex = \left(\frac{CRa}{370 Bqkg-1}\right)+\left(\frac{CTh}{259 Bqkg-1}\right)+\left(\frac{Ck }{4810 Bqkg-1}\right)$ (6) $Hin = \left(\frac{CRa}{185 Bqkg-1}\right)+\left(\frac{CTh}{259 Bqkg-1}\right)+\left(\frac{Ck }{4810 Bqkg-1}\right)$ (7)

In CRa, CTh, and CK represent the concentrations of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K in Bq kg^− 1. The absorbed dose from ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K is taken into account in calculating AEDE by using a dose conversion aspect of 0.7 SvG y^− 1 and an indoor occupancy aspect of 0.8. This was based on the assumption that the average individual spends approximately 19 hours per day indoors (Veiga et al., 2006). The fractional contribution of ²²⁶Ra (f_Ra), ²³²Th (f_Th) and ⁴⁰K (f_K) are 0.462, 0.604 and 0.041 respectively. NEA-OECD (1979) reports the typical activities per unit mass of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K are referred to be 50. 50 and 500 Bq kg^− 1, respectively.

Activity concentration of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K from Semarang and Cirebon

The distribution of concentration activity of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K in vicinity of two SPP are shown in Table 2. The mean concentration activity of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K in Cirebon is higher than in Semarang even though the capacity of SPP in Semarang is higher than Cirebon. It may be caused by ecological impacts (Zhu et al., 2024), environmental condition, such as atmospheric mobility (wind speed and direction, sea current); the concentration of radionuclides in the coal (Vaasma et al., 2017) that depend on geology of the mining location and type of the coal (lignite, subbituminous, bituminous and anthracite) and properties of physicochemical coal (Yakovlev et al., 2023), characteristic of the fuel, and the design of SPP itself that equipped with modern electrostatic filters (Seames and Wendt, 2000), purification system in the renovation operation (Vaasma et al, 2017), combustion technology and may be high contraction of chimney and supported by other resources such as granite (Harb et al., 2008). The average of activity concentration of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K analyzed from γ-spectrometry in this work was giving comparable values than those measured from other sites worldwide (Al-Trabulsy et al., 2011; Ravisankar et al, 2015; Zare, et al., 2020).

Table 2

Activity concentration of natural radionuclides (Bq.kg^− 1) in two Steam Power Plants
Station	Steam Power Plant (SPP)
	Semarang			Cirebon
	²³²Th	²²⁶Ra	⁴⁰K	²³²Th	²²⁶Ra	⁴⁰K
1	83.283	33.154	572.670	97.449	42.451	681.333
2	76.780	30.726	544.492	78.637	37.772	679.629
3	68.926	32.871	567.960	77.156	35.267	764.432
4	71.909	28.796	605.015	81.161	34.267	828.089
5	63.641	25.896	572.002	93.193	43.027	788.681
6	64.369	26.424	560.612	115.959	57.471	702.561
Mean	71.485 ± 7.565	29.645 ± 3.132	570.459 ± 19.894	90.593 ± 14.897	41.709 ± 8.522	740.788 ± 61.985
Indonesian basic safety standards	300	300	3000	300	300	3000
IAEA	1000	1000	10000	1000	1000	10000

According to the value proposed by Indonesian standard (BAPETEN) for permissible limits for radioactivity of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K in sediment are below 300, 300, and 3000 Bq.kg^− 1 respectively (BAPETEN, 2013) and according IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) safety guide (IAEA, 2004) are 1000, 1000 and 10000 Bq.kg^− 1 respectively. Base on the value of radiological detected in the vicinity of SPP in Semarang and Cirebon, the sediment condition in vicinity of two SPP is safety both according to BAPETEN and IAEA standards guide. In Semarang sampled showed that the activity concentration of the ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra in the station 1 and 2 was higher than other station, it due to the station 1 and 2 are very closed with SPP that released ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra directly to the environment and will be distributed to other placed by wind and current (Papaefthymiou, et al., 2005). However, the activity concentration of ⁴⁰K in Semarang was not occurred in station 1 and 2, it due to ⁴⁰K was not completely are released by SPP, but dominantly from natural. The lowest concentration of ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra in Semarang stations occurred in the station 5, it may be caused by no clay (Muslim et al., 2017) was detected in station 5 (Table 3), thus ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra were easy to distributed to other station.

Table 3

Concentration of salinity, pH, organic carbon (OC), silt, clay and sand sediment
	Concentration of salinity, pH, organic carbon, silt and clay sediment
Station	Semarang						Cirebon
	Salinity ‰	pH	OC %	Silt %	Clay %	Sand %	Salinity ‰	pH	OC %	Silt %	Clay %	Sand %
1	32.6	6.5	8.3	46,8	5	48.2	31.9	6.5	4.7	79.7	0.6	19.8
2	32.5	6.0	3.3	43,5	5	51.5	32.5	6.5	2.4	61.4	1.3	37.5
3	32.1	6.0	6.3	74.2	3	22.8	32.4	6.5	8.2	84.9	1.8	13.3
4	32.1	6.5	7.3	60.5	8	31.5	32.5	6.8	10.0	89.0	0.3	10.7
5	32.5	6.5	4.7	42.9	0	57.1	32.6	5.5	5.9	86.7	0.1	13.3
6	32.4	5.0	11.4	53.3	5	41.7	32.7	5.5	4.3	75.1	1.7	23.2
Mean	32.4	6.1	6.9	57.7	4.3	42.1	32.4	6.2	5.9	79.5	0.97	19.6

In Cirebon the highest concentration of ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra occurred in station 6, it due to in station 6 in closed with place of ship breaker of coal, however in other station the concentration ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra fluctuated, it due to the station 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Fig. 1) located in open placed that impressionable environmental condition.

From Table 3 showed that the pH sediment in two places indicated < 7 (acid) and the lowest pH occurred in station 6 in Semarang area and affected on highest organic carbon concentration, but this condition was not effects on radionuclide ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K.

Evaluation comparison of radiological hazards from Semarang and Cirebon

Building materials, rather than acting as shields against outdoor radiation, also act as sources of radiation. As a result, the indoor gamma dose rate corrected by in situ gamma monitoring was employed (Table 4, 5). The indoor dose rate mean values for sediment samples from Semarang and Cirebon are 151.54 ± 16.38 nGy h^− 1 and 196.09 ± 40.55 nGy h^− 1, respectively, which are higher than the world average value of 84 nGy h^− 1 (UNSCEAR, 2000). Cirebon has the highest average D_in value with the difference between Semarang’s averages values is 44.55 nGy h^− 1. In addition, from Table 4 and 5 it was known annual indoor effective dose averages from Semarang and Cirebon are 0.74 ± 0.08 mSv y^− 1 and 0.96 ± 0.20 mSv y^− 1, respectively. That was higher than the normal values, where the average AEDE from terrestrial radionuclides is 0.41 mSv y^− 1 in normal background radiation (UNSCEAR, 2000). According to the investigation, the Cirebon area had a higher average AEDE value than Semarang, even exceeding the normal value.

Table 4

Radiological data of sediment Semarang
Station	Semarang
Station	Din (nGyh^− 1)	AEDEin	AUI	AGDE (µSvy^− 1)	Ra_eq	H_ex	H_in
1	167.93	0.82	1.36	630.39	192.34	0.53	0.62
2	156.29	0.77	1.26	586.85	178.64	0.49	0.58
3	151.50	0.74	1.18	568.02	171.19	0.47	0.56
4	153.99	0.76	1.18	579.53	173.98	0.48	0.56
5	139.59	0.68	1.05	525.65	156.94	0.43	0.50
6	139.96	0.69	1.07	526.74	157.71	0.44	0.51
Mean	151.54	0.74	1.18	569.53	171.80	0.47	0.55

Table 5

Radiological data of sediment Cirebon
Station	Cirebon
Station	Din (nGyh^− 1)	AEDEin	AUI	AGDE (µSvy^− 1)	Ra_eq	H_ex	H_in
1	200.76	0.98	1.63	752.45	229.50	0.63	0.75
2	175.62	0.86	1.35	658.82	197.80	0.55	0.65
3	178.47	0.88	1.32	671.52	199.11	0.55	0.65
4	187.05	0.92	1.36	705.16	208.29	0.58	0.67
5	205.19	1.01	1.59	770.15	231.50	0.64	0.76
6	236.63	1.16	1.99	882.90	272.47	0.75	0.90
Mean	196.09	0.96	1.54	735.46	222.06	0.61	0.73

NEA-OECD (1979). Exposure to Radiation from the Natural Radioactivity in Building Materials, France. The average AUI values for Semarang and Cirebon are 1.18 ± 0.18 mSv y^− 1 and 1.54 ± 0.22 mSv y^− 1, respectively (Table 4, 5). The mean value obtained from both is lower than 2, which is the value of AUI that corresponds to a sufficient annual dose of 0.3 mSv y^− 1. The annual gonadal dose equivalent (AGDE) is a genetic representation of the population's reproductive organs (Ravisankar et al., 2015). The average AGDE’s values from Semarang and Cirebon are 569.53 ± 60.86 Sv y^− 1 and 735.46 ± 147.44 Sv y^− 1, respectively, which are higher than the UNSCEAR standard of 300 Sv y^− 1 reported as the world average, with the highest value coming from Cirebon areas. Moreover, Semarang and Cirebon had average Radium equivalent activity values of 171.80 ± 20.53 Bq kg^− 1 and 222.06 ± 50.41 Bq kg^− 1, respectively. In terms of radiological health safety, the maximum allowable value of Ra_eq 370 Bq Bq kg^− 1 (Sivakumar et al., 2014). According to the findings of this study, the external hazard index in the Semarang and Cirebon areas varied between 0.47 ± 0.06 and 0.61 ± 0.14, while the internal hazard index varied between 0.55 ± 0.06 and 0.73 ± 0.18. Cirebon's mean values are greater than the global average of 0.5 (Murugesan et al., 2011) and less the permissible limits (Hex < 1). These findings confirm that the catchment area's sediments are suitable for use as building materials.

From the results study it was clear that the radiological parameters i.e D_in, AEDE_in, AUI, AGDE, Ra_eq, H_ex, H_in and ELCR are showed generally high for certain radiation hazard indices calculated but still comparable with worldwide average value and other area in different country (Al-Trabulsy et al., 2011; Zare, et al.,2012; Ravisankar et al., 2015).

The operation of two steam power plants in Semarang and Cirebon have resulted in concentrations of the radionuclides of ²³²Th and ²²⁶Ra in the sediments. The distribution of radionuclide concentration in sediment is more dominantly influenced by the proximity to the use of coal in these plants, than on the content of organics matter, sediment texture, hydrodynamic processes and water quality condition, such as salinity, concentration of organic matter and acidity of the sediment. The level 0f ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K concentration in the sediment around the two SPP are still safe by Indonesia and IAEA standards. Radiological hazard parameters i.e D_in, AEDE_in, AUI, AGDE, Ra_eq, H_ex, H_in and ELCR are generally high and similar to the level of activity concentration of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K. All these values are comparable with the worldwide average value, and other areas of various countries (e.g. India).

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the other of APBN DPA SUKPA Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Diponegoro University (Grant No. 1501-36/UN7.5.10/LT/2018). We also provide our gratitude to Center for Technology of Radiation Safety, National Nuclear Energy Agency of Indonesia for support by Marine Radioecology’s Laboratory. Thanks to Pandu Putra Pratama, Polytechnic Academic Chemical Analyst Bogor.

Declaration of competing interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Funding

Author contribution

Muslim Muslim: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Sampling, Writing review & editing. Sri Yulina Wulandari: Supervision. Lilik Maslukah: Supervision, Investigation. Ivan Putra Ihsan Febriansyah: Sampling, sample preparation. Wahyu Retno Prihatiningsih^:Laboratory analysis, Laboratory Supervision, Data analyses,

Data availability: N/A

Ethics approval: N/A

Consent: N/A

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Radiological impact of the operation of two Steam Power Plants on the activity levels of ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra and ⁴⁰K in the sediments at Semarang and Cirebon, Indonesia

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