Table 1. Proximate and Ultimate analysis of Raw material of Lemon Peel Waste, LPW, compared to other lignocellulosic biomass
|
Proximate analysis (wt%)
|
Ultimate analysis (wt%)b
|
|
Waste
|
Moisture
|
Volatil matter
|
Ash
|
Fixed carbon
|
Carbon
|
Hydrogen
|
Nitrogen
|
Oxygena
|
High heating Value (MJ/kg)
|
References
|
LPW
|
10.86±0.23
|
80.81±0.14
|
5.37±0.38
|
13.82±0.52
|
40.103
|
7.363
|
1.027
|
51.52
|
18.01
|
(This work)
|
Lemon Peel
|
2.67
|
77.22
|
2.85
|
19.93
|
50.22
|
5.56
|
1.31
|
42.59
|
-
|
(Volpe et al. 2015)
|
Lemon Peel
|
6.10
|
87.16
|
5.40
|
1.34
|
40.33
|
5.96
|
1.27
|
52.25
|
-
|
(Pathak et al. 2017)
|
Orange peel
|
9.2
|
-
|
2.94
|
13.07
|
39.71
|
6.20
|
0.46
|
53.03
|
16.83
|
(Miranda et al. 2009)
|
Citrus unshiu peel
|
4.3
|
74.3
|
3.3
|
18.1
|
42.9
|
6.4
|
1
|
46.4
|
17.54
|
(Kim et al. 2015)
|
Citrus peel waste
|
20
|
57.5
|
6.9
|
15.5
|
42.9
|
6.3
|
1.3
|
40.8
|
14.41
|
(Chiodo et al. 2017)
|
Rice Husk
|
-
|
61.81
|
21.24
|
16.9
|
38.5
|
5.2
|
0.45
|
34.61
|
14.69
|
(Yin 2011)
|
Sugar cane Bagasse
|
8.5
|
84
|
5.86
|
1.64
|
45.04
|
5.78
|
1.75
|
47.43
|
18.17
|
(Arni 2017)
|
grape bagasse
|
6.2
|
68.42
|
4.7
|
20.68
|
46.59
|
6.25
|
1.67
|
45.49
|
22.06
|
(Demiral and Asl 2011)
|
a: by difference
b: The results are expressed ash free
Table 2. Proximate and Ultimate analysis of biochar produced from LPW pyrolysis at 300°C, 400°C and 500°C.
Analysis
|
300°C
|
400°C
|
500°C
|
Proximate analyses (wt%)
|
Moisture
|
1.97±1.17
|
0.34±0.21
|
1.47±0.25
|
Volatil matter
|
75.82±0.70
|
63.53±2.35
|
58.63±2.20
|
Ash
|
5.84±1.61
|
7.33±3.67
|
9.49±0.07
|
Fixed carbon
|
18.34±0.9
|
29.14±2.28
|
31.88±0.87
|
Ultimate analyses (wt%)
|
Carbon
|
51.41±2. 5
|
-
|
72.29±1.73
|
Hydrogen
|
5.41±0.21
|
-
|
3.48±1.08
|
Nitrogen
|
1. 5±0.25
|
-
|
2.87±0.78
|
Oxygen
|
41.68±2.55
|
-
|
21.35±1.43
|
High Heating Value (MJ/kg)
|
|
19.88±0.55
|
-
|
24.42±0.26
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 3. Components in biomass and chars produced from LPW pyrolysis and assignment to wavenumbers.
Frequency range (cm−1)
|
Wavenumber (cm−1)
|
Assignment
|
Class of compounds
|
3600-3300
|
3394-3309
|
O–H hydroxyl stretching
|
Water. phenolic with hydrogen bond
|
3000-2800
|
2922
|
C-H stretching of the aliphatic CH3 and CH2 groups
|
Alkanes
|
1740-1700
|
1627 - 1602
|
C=C stretching
|
carboxyl. aldehyde. ketone. ester
|
1600-1595
|
1614-1579
|
C=C. C=O. C=N
|
aromatic components conjugated ketones and quinones
|
1514-1406
|
1445; 1433
|
C=C
|
streching aromatic
|
1000-1030
|
1057
|
Symmetric C–O stretching
|
(cellulose. hemicellulose. and lignin)
|
885-750
|
876 - 779
|
C-H deformation
|
Pyridine
|
Table 4. Chemical composition obtained by GC-MS for bio-oil obtained after LPW pyrolysis at 300°C, 400°C and 500°C.
|
TR
|
Compounds
|
Molecular formula
|
300°C
|
400°C
|
500°C
|
1
|
4.877
|
Ethanamine,
|
C2H7N
|
1.74
|
-
|
-
|
2
|
4.902
|
Ethylamine
|
C2H7N
|
-
|
1.37
|
-
|
3
|
6.380
|
D-Limonene
|
C10H16
|
-
|
-
|
1.67
|
4
|
6.491
|
- 3-Allyl-5-methyl-1,3-oxazolidin-2-one
|
C7H11NO2
|
1.90
|
-
|
-
|
5
|
6.508
|
1-Hpyrole-2-carboxaldehyde
|
C5H5NO
|
-
|
0.79
|
-
|
6
|
6.83
|
acetophenone
|
C9H10O3
|
-
|
-
|
0.63
|
7
|
7.069
|
Propylene Glycol
|
C3H8O2
|
-
|
1.16
|
-
|
8
|
7.358
|
Acetic acid
|
C2H4O3
|
-
|
2.03
|
-
|
9
|
8.530
|
Pyridine
|
C5H5NO
|
-
|
3.46
|
-
|
10
|
10.798
|
Diacetone alcohol
|
C6H12O2
|
1.04
|
-
|
-
|
11
|
11.486
|
Phosphoric Acid
|
H3O4P
|
7.36
|
-
|
-
|
12
|
11.512
|
- Glycerin
|
C3H8O3
|
-
|
23.50
|
-
|
13
|
12.251
|
Hydroquinone
|
C6H6O2
|
-
|
9.28
|
-
|
14
|
13.814
|
Hydroquinone
|
C6H6O2
|
-
|
4.57
|
-
|
15
|
14.145
|
1,2,4-butanetriol
|
C4H10O3
|
-
|
1.53
|
-
|
16
|
15.844
|
4(1H)-Pyrimidinone, 2-amino-6-mercapto-
|
C4H5N3OS
|
1.28
|
-
|
-
|
17
|
18.486
|
α-D-lyxofuranoside, methyl
|
C6H12O5
|
-
|
1.57
|
-
|
18
|
18.843
|
Levoglucosan
|
C6H10O5
|
-
|
4.80
|
-
|
19
|
19.192
|
D-glucopyranuronic acid
|
C6H10O7
|
1.75
|
8.28
|
-
|
20
|
20.364
|
Hexanal, 4-methyl
|
C7H14O
|
-
|
1.32
|
-
|
21
|
21.052
|
Tetradecanoic Acid
|
C14H28O2
|
-
|
-
|
1.03
|
22
|
21.732
|
4-coumaric acid
|
C9H8O3
|
-
|
2.45
|
2.30
|
23
|
21.78
|
Dodecanenitrile
|
C12H23N
|
-
|
-
|
2.0
|
24
|
22.45
|
n-Pentanoic acid
|
C15H30O2
|
-
|
-
|
0.57
|
25
|
23.023
|
citroptene
|
C11H10O4
|
-
|
-
|
0.57
|
26
|
23.796
|
Palmitic Acid
|
C16H32O2
|
10.74
|
3.36
|
19.98
|
27
|
24.57
|
Heptadecanenitrile
|
C17H33N
|
-
|
-
|
3.04
|
28
|
24.849
|
Inositol
|
C6H12O6
|
-
|
1.72
|
|
29
|
25.087
|
Benzene
|
C10H12
|
-
|
-
|
0.55
|
30
|
26.005
|
Oleic acid
|
C18H34O2
|
5.97
|
2.55
|
12.96
|
31
|
26.090
|
5-pregnene-3, 20-dione
|
C21H30O2
|
-
|
2.02
|
-
|
32
|
26.319
|
Stearic acid
|
C18H36O2
|
8.89
|
3.19
|
9.23
|
33
|
28.358
|
2,2-dimethyl-propionic acid
|
C39H45NO7
|
-
|
-
|
0.67
|
34
|
28.647
|
Arachic acid
|
C20H40O2
|
-
|
-
|
0.60
|
35
|
30.397
|
Monopalmitin
|
C19H38O4
|
8.47
|
1.08
|
2.64
|
36
|
32.393
|
Monostearin
|
C21H42O4
|
11.71
|
-
|
-
|
37
|
32.767
|
Squalene
|
C30H50
|
-
|
-
|
0.95
|
38
|
33.387
|
n-Tetracosane
|
C24H50
|
-
|
-
|
0.78
|
39
|
38.484
|
β-Sitosterol
|
C29H50O
|
-
|
-
|
2.55
|
Table 5. Composition of gas products produced from LPW pyrolysis at 300°C, 400°C and 500°C
Gas
|
300°C
|
400°C
|
500°C
|
CO
|
10,78
|
75,87
|
59,79
|
CO2
|
0,12
|
0,68
|
0,72
|
CH4
|
0,42
|
5,25
|
3,57
|
CnHm
|
0,13
|
1,48
|
1,63
|
H2
|
0,46
|
0
|
0
|
N2
|
26,94
|
20,25
|
21,18
|
Calculated LHV (MJ/kg)
|
1
|
12
|
10
|