Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) were the most commonly advertised product (51%), even more so in Guatemala (61%) than in Peru (41%). Of the SSB ads, 25% belonged to energy drinks. In contrast, ads for water were rare: 12% in Peru and 4% in Guatemala (Table 1).
Table 1
Product Categories in the 200 Evaluated Advertisements Found in Corner Stores Around Schools from Lima Perú, and Guatemala City, Guatemala (n = 200)
| n | % |
Sugar-sweetened beverages | 102 | 51 |
Candy | 20 | 10 |
Dairy | 19 | 9.5 |
Water | 16 | 8 |
Salty Snacks | 13 | 6.5 |
Ice cream | 10 | 5 |
Bread and pastry | 9 | 4.5 |
Instant prepared food | 4 | 2 |
Cereals | 3 | 1.5 |
Others | 4 | 2 |
A total of 20% of the ads exhibited gender representation at least in one of the following variables: number and gender of the persons shown in the ad, gender of the main character, product representation, and public to which the ad is visually oriented. For the variable number and gender of persons in the ad, ads with no characters (77% in Guatemala and 81% from Peru) were classified as gender-neutral, whereas ads with female representation (showing female characters predominantly) were 10% in each city. We found more male-oriented ads for this variable in Guatemala (13%) than in Peru (9%) (Table 2).
Table 2
Gender Representation in Food and Beverage Print Advertisements in Corner Stores Around Schools from Lima, Perú, and Guatemala City, Guatemala *
Variable | Neutral | Female | Male |
| Guatemala n = 100 | Perú n = 100 | Guatemala n = 100 | Perú n = 100 | Guatemala n = 100 | Perú n = 100 |
Product representation | 78 | 87 | 2 | 5 | 20 | 8 |
Number and gender of the persons shown in the ad | 77 | 81 | 10 | 10 | 13 | 9 |
Gender of the main character | 52 | 74 | 12 | 12 | 36 | 14 |
Public to which the ad is visually oriented | 60 | 70 | 13 | 13 | 27 | 17 |
*Cell numbers indicate frequencies and percentages by country. |
Nearly half (48%) of the ads in Guatemala and 26% in Peru had a main character that was either animated (i.e., a cartoon character) or a real person. The presence of a male main character was higher in Guatemala (36%) than in Peru (14%). We found no difference between countries regarding the percentage of ads with female main characters (Table 2). A quarter of the ads (28%) in Guatemala had the presence of animated characters, most of which were male-oriented (22 of 28 ads). Of these, eight ads presented spokes characters whose gender could not be determined. In 20 ads, we assigned male representation because the character displayed traits that are considered typically masculine, such as clothing, activities (i.e., male-dominated sports), physical characteristics, and personality (i.e., strength, attitude). In Peru, the presence of animated characters was less frequent (nine of the 26 ads).
Human characters were present in 17% of the ads from Peru and 20% from Guatemala. Male characters, usually athletes, appeared in SSB ads (mainly energy drink and soda brands) doing sports-related activities. Female ones were also found in SSB ads and other products (e.g., yogurt, oatmeal). These characters appeared generally outdoors and displaying or consuming the featured product. In Peru, only two ads presented women doing sports or at work. Nine ads from Guatemala had celebrities (actors or athletes) as main characters, five of which were male. In Peru, four ads displayed celebrities as the main characters (all male).
We used graphic elements (e.g.., character portrayal, typography, setting, color, and scale) to assess the gender representation of the variables product representation and public to which the ad is visually oriented. Regarding product representation, 20% of the ads in Guatemala and 8% in Peru were male-oriented, whereas female-oriented ads were 2% and 5%, respectively (Table 2). The ads were visually male-oriented in 27% of the ads in Guatemala and 17% in Peru, while female orientation was 13% in each country (Table 2). In the male-oriented ads, the character (human or animated) was depicted both in a photograph in the ad and in the product’s package. Also, male-oriented ads contained typographies, colors, and design elements that could be considered masculine due to their characteristics (i.e., bold, rudeness, sharpness). Women were frequently shown holding or consuming the advertised product.