This is the first study carried out on the perception and knowledge of amphibians in the Colombian Caribbean region by people who inhabit urban and rural localities. This research is of the utmost importance for the characterization of interest groups to better target conservation strategies in the territory.
The results of this study show factors that guide and influence knowledge and perceptions towards amphibians, as well as the interactions between sociodemographic variables, such as gender, age and educational level.
Knowledge
Most of the participants associated frogs and toads with the amphibian group, but very few people managed to classify salamanders and caecilians with this taxonomic group. The foregoing represents a challenge to increase the state of knowledge of the 27 salamanders and 33 caecilians of Colombia [49], species that have low abundances, are highly cryptic (in the case of salamanders) or live under the ground (in the case of caecilians). Another challenge for future environmental education schemes is that many people classified lizards, turtles and snakes as amphibians, which shows a lack of knowledge of the unique characteristics that amphibians have within the group of vertebrate animals.
Also people's knowledge about local amphibians was poor, most of the respondents only identified one species, others recognized at least two of those shown in the image tests, and very few managed to exceed that figure, showing a very poor familiarity with native amphibians. The scenario of ignorance could be even worse if it is considered that the five species chosen for the present study (of the 38 species of amphibians in the region) are among the most common in terms of high abundance or probability of detection[45,50–53].
This study showed results similar to those of Nates and Lindemann-Matthies (2015a) and Ríos-Orejuela et al. (2020) [8,9], where respondents showed difficulties in differentiating amphibians and little familiarity with local species. Despite this shortcoming, several people mentioned general aspects of amphibian biology, such as Respondent # 94: “For me all toads are just as ugly, I see them it evoke disgust" Urban woman 20 years old; or respondent # 282 "I have nothing against them but they do disgust me"; Rural man 34 years old "com pers" (see Figure 2). Statistical tests showed differences between the genera where women from both localities more frequently included reptiles as amphibians (57.85%), which may be due to the fact that these species are normally associated with unpleasant and frightening physical aspects ([3,16]).
Respondents between the ages of 19 and 30 also made this identification error (confusing amphibians with reptiles) (63.34%), likewise, participants between the ages of 12-18 years also more frequently identified the reptiles in this group (37, 15%) showing that the concept of amphibian is not clear. One reason for this conceptual flaw can be inferred as a limitation of the educational system in the areas of natural sciences, where they are based only on the texts that teachers handle, leaving aside the practical part such as visits to museums, zoos or field trips that enrich students' knowledge about local species. In addition, at this level of education teaching does not take into account or is not clear about the importance of species that are not charismatic, so their biology and ecological aspects are not studied in depth [54–56].
Familiarity with local species was very low. The participants showed great difficulty in identifying the species shown in the images and this was more frequent with the inhabitants of the urban locality. This pattern was previously reported by Nates & Lindemann-Matthies (2015a, b) [8,42] where respondents from sectors closer to the field had more affinity with local species, which is very understandable due to the fact that direct experiences are a rich source of knowledge of wildlife ([57]). Works such as that of Brom et al. (2020) [3] in South Africa mention in their results that many of the respondents who had encounters with these species in their childhood showed a broader knowledge about them and a greater retention of this knowledge.
Continuing with the familiarity of people with local amphibians, the most frequently recognized species for both urban and rural sectors was R. horribilis (36.15%), which can be attributed to the fact that this species is quite common and can be found in a great diversity of ecosystems, including those with great anthropic activity [58]. Regarding gender, we found that 60% of the women expressed dislike and repulsion for the images shown during the survey, an aspect that exacerbates their fear or disinterest in amphibians [59]. The gender difference in knowledge about the richness and composition of local species in the rural sector may be due to the traditional assignment of roles where from an early age, girls are asked to collaborate with their mothers in housework, while male children are sent with their parents to work in the field. The latter being in closer contact with nature have more knowledge about native species [60].
Concerning knowledge of the local species recognized by the respondents, we found that a large percentage of the urban population indicated that they recognized C. gayi, an endemic species of Chile with no presence in the country (24.61%). Perhaps this is due to the little contact they have with amphibian populations in the urban area, so its knowledge is built upon foreign biodiversity documentaries seen on television.
Positive and negative perceptions towards amphibians
The positive perceptions about amphibians in this study varied between locality, gender, age groups and level of study, showing the high degree of complexity that people have about amphibian species. We found differences in the perceptions of people at the level of gender and academic training concerning the premise about the medicinal use of amphibians. Women from both localities and participants in studies at the primary level disagreed, unlike the rest of the participants, especially some respondents from rural areas and people with professional training who gave examples for the use of amphibians in traditional medicine that have been documented both in Latin America and Europe [61,62]. The idea about the nutritional value of amphibians yielded significant differences at the local level, academic training and ages, where participants from the rural sector, adolescents and people without formal education stated that they disagreed with the inclusion of these species in the gastronomic spectrum of people. This is consistent with works such as that of Ellen et al. (1976) [63] in Indonesia where only a select group of some traditional tribes were those that consumed these species. Also, in Pakistan Ali et al. (2017) [64] found that only 3% of the surveyed population responded that amphibians could be used as food; however, our results showed that people with professional studies and from the urban sector were in agreement with this premise by having a broader gastronomic vision. In the Colombian Amazon, some indigenous communities capture more than 180 species of fauna for their consumption of which 8 are amphibians [65]. The results obtained contrast with other studies carried out in China where some 225 species of amphibians are found and 75% are used as food and for medicinal purposes [42,66]. Likewise, in Nepal amphibians are often consumed and hunting frogs for food is a fairly common practice in districts such as Gorkha [67]. These results differ significantly from those obtained in the present study.
Aesthetics played an important role and was a great influence on the sympathy or aversion that people feel towards amphibians. Women from rural localities and adolescents with primary and secondary studies considered amphibians to be unpleasant, and they regularly give value judgments to these species [16]. In contrast, men from both localities and people with professional training considered amphibians pleasant. These perceptions can be regulated by the knowledge obtained in their education or in their social environment or by direct experiences. Brom et al. (2020) [3] mention that many times the interactions of people with amphibians in their childhood expanded the knowledge of these people about these species and were mostly related to their positive feelings for amphibians.
Another positive perception that varied between gender and locality was the use of amphibians as pets, where 80.48% of the rural population stated that they were against this use, while in the urban population only 40.7% had the same perception. This may be due to the fact that in rural townships there is a greater predilection for domestic pets, and they do not have much fascination for wild species, an aspect that is more common in the city [68,69]. However, the highest percentage of respondents who strongly disagreed that amphibians can be pets were urban women. Among other beliefs that enhance people's positive perceptions of amphibians, we found that the majority of respondents agreed with premises such as that amphibians consume harmful mosquitoes, which is to be expected since these species are considered mostly controllers of pests [70]. Only a small percentage of women in the urban sector responded that they did not agree with this belief. On the other hand, the majority of the surveyed population agreed that amphibians can sing. Several participants even made sounds made by frogs and toads that they had heard.
Negative perceptions about fauna are largely influenced by the beliefs and folklore of the region where they give superstitious connotations to animals. In the case of amphibians these are commonly associated with witchcraft and diseases, giving it a negative image in society [1]. In the present study, differences were found between the public surveyed at the local, gender and school level, where the rural sector, mainly adolescent women distributed between primary and secondary schools were in total agreement with premises such as that amphibians shed milk through their skin, myths that have been transmitted from generation to generation in various human communities [7,15]. In contrast, urban young adults with technical and professional academic levels disagreed with these negative myths.
As for whether the respondents considered amphibians harmful, a small percentage distributed among women in the rural sector and some adolescent respondents stated they fully agree with this premise. Likewise, this group considered that amphibians can be carriers of diseases, which can be a confusion with the production of toxins by some species [71]. However, people's perceptions of amphibians did not have negative values as broad as those exposed in work published by Prokop and Fancovicová (2012) [13] in Slovakia, where respondents (mainly owners of farms and ponds in the rural sector) claim to feel a strong hatred and repulsion towards amphibians to the point of responding that they felt like killing them. It is possible that the negative results of the present study are less radical due to the poor knowledge of people about amphibians, which may lead to little interest in these species.
Interest in conservation of amphibians
We understand perception as a constructive process where people organize the stimuli received by the senses to form a conscious or unconscious impression of things in the environment [72]. In this sense, this interpretation is of great importance in the field of amphibian conservation since people's efforts to conserve species will depend on how they are perceived. Understanding the degree of interest of urban and rural people in receiving information on how to conserve amphibians is one of the objectives of this study. Most of the participants had a positive response to being linked to amphibian conservation programs, in urban areas people interested in conserving amphibians consider them pleasant and useful (for controlling insects or serving as pets). In the rural area, the interested people had a greater knowledge of the amphibian groups (salamanders, caecilians, frogs and toads), they recognized other uses (medicinal and food), and they liked their song because it has direct interaction with them. This interest in rural people was greater in adolescents, adults and young adults.
It was also found that people with a low level of education in rural areas had a greater interest in learning more. Perhaps the people who live in rural areas, by coexisting in the habitat of amphibians due to their direct relationship with amphibians, have generated greater interest because they are able to hear their songs in the reproductive season and they know about other ecological attributes, unlike people who live in the city where they do not interact with amphibians. Nates & Lindemann-Matthies (2015a) [8] mention that households in rural and remote regions were more dependent on natural resources and more connected to the local environment than households in more urban regions, especially when they had low income and have a higher direct relationship with frogs and greater knowledge about them. Several studies have determined that direct experience with fauna increases knowledge and interest in conserving it [1,14]. For example, Brom et al. (2020) [3] report that there is a relationship between knowledge and taste for amphibians; and in addition, the positive experiences of people increase their environmental behavior.
All the perceptions of people must be considered, regardless of their origin or veracity. One of the goals of amphibian conservation is to inform and educate the public about the importance of amphibians in ecosystems, and the support of people could make conservation much more successful [73]. For example, the few participants who were able to identify the endemic amphibian A. laetissimus gave valuable information about its habitat, commenting that they had seen it in the daytime and in a stream in the region. The participatory inventories and the knowledge of the people who live with the species day by day is very important, since they are species that were believed to be extinct and have been re-registered in areas where they had not been studied, such as the harlequin frog Atelopus lozanoi which was sighted by farmers in the eastern mountain range of Colombia and had not been sighted for more than 20 years [74,75]).
In the rural area of Santa Marta there is a high diversity of amphibians, some of them endemic, such as the monotypic genus such as Geobatrachus, as well as the presence of frogs of the genus Atelopus with good populations [45]. This is an area with high potential for ecotourism. Especially an economic strategy including herpetology for tourists could improve the income of families in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta [76]. However, the local inhabitants have great ignorance about these species, and this could hinder conservation programs and deteriorate the area due to unsustainable ecotourism (example soil compaction, erosion and habitat alteration), since the area does not have strong environmental institutions to protect the environment [77], which makes environmental education a fundamental component in wildlife conservation planning. It is necessary to have an informed public about the problems and knowledge of the local amphibian species to lead towards more positive perceptions of the local communities towards amphibians. As decision makers have more knowledge and positive perceptions about amphibians, there will be a greater willingness to conserve these species [78]. The 21st century is considered the century of extinctions, as some have argued, people will only understand the importance of species if they know them and if they have developed an experiential relationship that mediates significant learning, that is, people will not notice the absence of a species of which they have no knowledge; or they will not be worried about species´ extinctions, which raises much concern due to the poor knowledge that local actors have about amphibians and how some negative attitudes reduce the conservation interest for these species [79,80].