Cotton stalk compost and microbial seed treatment on cotton yield contributing parameters
Cotton has two branching patterns: monopodial (vegetative branches) and sympodial (fruiting or boll-bearing branches). Sympodia are of great importance in cotton, as it determines the number of inflorescences and bolls, which contributes to the final seed cotton yield. The nutrient management practices and microbial seed treatment significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the number of sympodial branches formed in the cotton. A 0.6% increase in sympodia was observed in microbial consortia seed treatment compared to cotton seeds without microbial seed treatment. Among the nutrient management treatments, INM and MINM recorded 2% more sympodial branches than the standard RDF. However, the treatments that received only FYM and ECC (17.9) recorded significantly fewer sympodia than RDF (Fig. 1a). Overall, the number of sympodia among the nutrient management treatments (INM, MINM, and RDF) did not differ significantly. More harvestable bolls were recorded in the INM and MINM treatments compared to the RDF. The INM and MINM were found to have an equivalent number of bolls. Similarly, the treatments, which received microbial consortia seed treatment, recorded 8.9% increase in boll numbers per plant compared to cotton seeds without microbial seed treatment (Fig. 1b). The FYM and ECC treatments recorded significantly lesser boll numbers compared to RDF. Overall, our results indicate that ECC can act as an effective substitute for FYM in INM practice for cotton production.
The MINM treatment recorded higher boll weight compared to the INM and RDF, which was approximately 9.9% more than those of the RDF. Further, a 17.6% increase in boll weight was observed in the treatment of cotton seeds with microbial consortia compared to the untreated (Fig. 1c). Although, there were variations in the SCY over the years, treating cotton seeds with microbial consortia increased SCY by 12.8% compared to untreated seeds. The treatment, which received microbial seed treatment, recorded a SCY of 2815 kg ha− 1 compared to 2496 kg ha− 1 in untreated seed plot (Fig. 1d). Averaged over the years, INM (3344 kg ha− 1) followed by MINM (3190 kg ha− 1) recorded significantly higher SCY than RDF (2835 kg ha− 1), which were 18% and 13% more than the RDF, respectively. The INM and MINM found to be on par in the SCY according to the HSD test. The sole application of FYM and ECC application showed a non-significant effect on sympodia, boll numbers, boll weight, and SCY over RDF.
The higher fruiting branches, boll numbers, boll weight and SCY in INM and MINM treatments along with microbial seed treatments indicate favorable conditions in those treatments in terms of modulation of soil physical, chemical and biological properties. The cotton yield contributing parameters are greatly influenced by soil moisture, stress conditions, pest and disease, and nutrient availability, apart from genetic differences in cotton variety or hybrid. The higher boll numbers and SCY in INM and MINM are additionally attributed to the seed inoculated microbial consortia, which have mobilized or solubilized the unavailable nutrients in soil to plant available form, apart from the production of plant growth hormones and other stress alleviators. Further, the nutrient content of FYM in INM and ECC in MINM has played a major role in enhancing soil physical (reduction in soil bulk density facilitating deeper root penetration) and chemical properties (decline in soil pH promoting higher nutrient mobilization), along with enhancement in organic carbon and other macro, secondary and micronutrient supplementation compared with RDF, which supplies only chemical form of nutrients.
In earlier studies, a significant enhancement in soil organic carbon and available nutrient status was reported with FYM application in cotton [38, 39] with increased SCY [40]. Similarly, in another field study on cotton in Vertisol, lower nutrient uptake was reported for farmer practice compared to the best agronomic management practices with inorganic nutrients [41]. The combined application of NPK fertilizer along with beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhiza was reported to influence cotton growth [42]. Integrated use of organic and inorganic nutrients with effective microorganisms was shown to enhance the growth and yield of cotton, apart from saving 50% mineral nitrogen fertilizer [43]. The combined application of organic and inorganic inputs in cotton improved soil physical properties, such as a reduction in bulk density, greater water holding capacity, higher infiltration rate, and an increase in nutrient availability [44].
Cotton stalk compost and microbial seed treatment on cotton fibre quality attribute
Though cotton yield is the most important factor to consider for farmer income, the price of cotton lint is decided on the basis of its fibre qualities. Hence, fibre quality is an essential parameter in cotton production. In our study, treatment, which received microbial seed treatment, recorded significantly (p < 0.05) higher ginning outturn (GOT) compared with untreated (Fig. 2a). In sub-treatments, MINM followed by INM recorded significantly (p < 0.05) higher GOT compared to RDF. About the fibre length, cotton seeds treated with microbial consortia recorded 1.39% increase (30.6 mm) over the untreated seeds (30.2 mm). MINM and INM recorded 31.3 mm and 30.6 mm, respectively, in sub-treatments, which was 4.51 and 2.1% increase in fibre length over the RDF (29.9 mm) (Fig. 2b). Similarly, in fibre strength, MINM and INM recorded 22.3 g tex− 1 and 21.5 g tex− 1, respectively, which were 5.19 and 1.42% increase over the RDF. Microbial seed treatment significantly enhanced the fibre strength by 4.7% compared to untreated seeds (Fig. 2c). However, there was a non-significant (p > 0.05) difference in micronaire for both the main and sub-treatments (Fig. 2d). Though, the sole application of FYM and ECC was non-significant in GOT compared with RDF, they showed a significant increase in fibre length and strength over the RDF treatment. The improvement in the cotton fibre quality in INM and MINM practice compared to the RDF is ascribed to the synergistic and interactive effect of organic and chemical input on modulating the soil properties. Primarily, the enhancement in soil organic matter and associated biological activity and nutrient fluxes in soil are important factor, which have regulated the cotton fibre development. Although cotton fibre attributes largely depend on genetic control, environment and crop management greatly influence the fibre properties including length, strength and maturity [45]. Especially, water availability, nutrient deficiencies, and C availability affects the cellulose deposition in cotton during fibre development [46, 47]
Cotton stalk compost and microbial seed treatment on soil biological activities
The microbial seed treatment significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced the soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) compared to the untreated seeds. In sub-treatments, MINM followed by INM recorded a significantly (p < 0.05) higher MBC than RDF, which was 2.4% and 0.65% increase over the RDF for MINM and INM, respectively (Table 2). The dehydrogenase (DHA) as an indicator of soil microbial activity was significantly enhanced by microbial seed treatment (6.14 µg TPF g− 1 h− 1; 10.4% increase) compared to untreated seeds (Table 2). Similarly, the MINM and INM recorded 7.0 µg and 6.3 µg, respectively, which were 20.4 and 8.4% increase over the RDF (5.82 µg). Application of FYM and ECC alone enhanced DHA in soil over the RDF. The soil alkaline phosphatase (ALP) plays a major role in the hydrolysis of organic P substances to inorganic form, thus enhancing the phosphorus mineralization and availability in the soil.
Table 2
Nutrient management practices on soil biological attributes
Treatments
|
Microbial biomass carbon
(µg g− 1)
|
Dehydrogenase activity
(µg TPF g− 1 h− 1)
|
Alkaline phosphatase
(µg PNP g− 1 h− 1)
|
β glucosidase
(µg PNP g− 1 h− 1)
|
|
Year-1
|
Year-2
|
Year-
1
|
Pooled
|
Year-1
|
Year-2
|
Year-1
|
Pooled
|
Year-1
|
Year-2
|
Year-1
|
Pooled
|
Year-1
|
Year-2
|
Year-1
|
Pooled
|
Main treatments
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- (MC)
|
638.5
|
648.1
|
655.8
|
647.5
|
4.88
|
5.17
|
6.63
|
5.56
|
164.8
|
181.9
|
191.2
|
179.3
|
77.3
|
86.3
|
98.7
|
87.4
|
+ (MC)
|
648.6
|
656.4
|
669.2
|
658.1
|
5.34
|
5.66
|
7.42
|
6.14
|
174.4
|
192.2
|
206.0
|
190.9
|
86.7
|
93.0
|
108.5
|
96.1
|
LSD0.05
|
5.25
|
4.58
|
4.22
|
2.85
|
0.27
|
0.26
|
0.29
|
0.19
|
2.64
|
2.05
|
3.00
|
1.54
|
2.01
|
3.30
|
3.22
|
1.79
|
Sub treatments
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
RDF
|
647.8
|
652.1
|
666.5
|
655.5b
|
5.08
|
5.33
|
7.04
|
5.82c
|
172.6
|
178.5
|
193.2
|
181.4b
|
95.8
|
90.3
|
99.7
|
95.3c
|
INM
|
652.5
|
656.6
|
670.3
|
658.9b
|
5.24
|
6.02
|
7.66
|
6.31b
|
175.5
|
200.2
|
215.9
|
197.2a
|
91.4
|
96.5
|
114.0
|
100.7b
|
MINM
|
661.0
|
671.4
|
681.9
|
671.4a
|
6.16
|
6.36
|
8.50
|
7.01a
|
181.5
|
212.4
|
219.7
|
204.5a
|
97.8
|
102.1
|
125.4
|
108.4a
|
Only FYM
|
649.2
|
662.8
|
667.1
|
659.7b
|
5.50
|
5.75
|
7.55
|
6.27bc
|
170.6
|
184.2
|
201.1
|
185.3b
|
85.8
|
92.8
|
105.2
|
94.6c
|
Only ECC
|
652.1
|
653.6
|
667.4
|
657.7b
|
5.24
|
5.37
|
7.32
|
5.97c
|
164.3
|
186.3
|
194.6
|
181.7b
|
75.8
|
90.9
|
103.1
|
89.9d
|
Control
(No nutrients)
|
598.7
|
617.5
|
621.6
|
612.6c
|
3.42
|
3.66
|
4.09
|
3.72d
|
153.3
|
160.8
|
167.2
|
160.4c
|
55.5
|
65.2
|
74.2
|
65.0e
|
LSD0.05
|
6.69
|
7.93
|
7.31
|
4.94
|
0.48
|
0.46
|
0.50
|
0.32
|
4.58
|
3.56
|
5.20
|
2.67
|
3.49
|
5.72
|
5.57
|
3.10
|
Interaction
(Main x Sub)
LSD0.05
|
9.46
|
11.2
|
10.3
|
6.99
|
0.67
|
0.65
|
0.71
|
0.46
|
6.48
|
5.04
|
7.36
|
3.78
|
4.93
|
8.09
|
7.88
|
4.38
|
All values are mean of three replications; - (MC), without microbial consortia seed treatment, + (MC), with microbial consortia seed treatment; Values indicating superscript letters are statistically significant according to the Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test (p < 0.05) among the treatments. |
Treating cotton seeds with microbial consortia enhanced the soil ALP activity by 6.5% compared to the untreated seed plot (Table 2). In sub-treatments, PINM (205 µg; 13% increase) followed by INM (197 µg; 8.7% increase), FYM (185 µg), and ECC (181 µg) recorded significantly higher ALP activity compared to the RDF (181 µg). A similar trend was observed for the β-glucosidase (BG) activity in our study. The BG is an important indicator of carbon cycling in the environment, which cleaves cellobiose into glucose molecules and subsequently available as a carbon source for microbial activities in the soil. Microbial seed treatment showed 10% increased BG activity compared to the untreated seed plot. In sub-treatments, PINM (13.8% increase) followed by INM (5.7% increase) recorded higher BG activity compared to the RDF (95 µg) (Table 2).
Biological indicators form an integral component in soil health assessment [48]. Recently, soil health indicators such as MBC and soil enzyme activities have been used as an indicator of soil qualities under different agricultural practices [49, 50]. Soil enzymes perform several biogeochemical reactions in soil, which plays a major role in nutrient recycling and help plants to assimilate the available nutrients [51, 52]. Soil enzymes also serve as an early indicator of changes in soil, which provides information on anthropogenic impacts on soil function [53]. The increased soil biological activities in and INM and MINM treatments compared to the RDF indicate the synergistic effects of organic (FYM and ECC) and chemical fertilizers on soil physical and chemical attributes and their impact on microbial functions including microbial biomass carbon and soil enzyme activities (dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and β-glucosidase).
The increased MBC in treatments that received organic (FYM and ECC) and organic plus chemical inputs (INM and MINM) is attributed to the higher cotton root volume and rhizodeposition than treatments, which received only chemical fertilizer (RDF) or organics (FYM and ECC). Possibly, the readily metabolizable carbon from organics and nutrient supply from chemical fertilizer at cotton rhizosphere and the differences in root exudates due to nutrient management practices are the influential factors contributing to increased microbial colonization and subsequent higher MBC in soils under INM and MINM. MBC comprises 1–4% of soil organic matter [54] and is the most active component of soil organic carbon that regulates biogeochemical processes in terrestrial ecosystems [55]. MBC is considered as a robust indicator of soil quality as it responds to environmental changes, much earlier than bulk soil organic matter. The decrease of MBC as a fraction of total organic carbon implies a reduction in microbial transformation and intensity [56]. However, long-term experiments in Vertisols demonstrated mineral fertilizer application sequestered higher organic C compared with the application of FYM alone [57]. Further, long-term applications of organic and inorganic supplement aid in the accumulation of organic matter, which in turn had substantial incremental effect on the soil microbial biomass and its activities [58]. Goyal et al. [59] showed that the application of inorganic fertilizers increased soil MBC by increasing root growth, root exudates, and production of mucigel over unfertilized fields in sandy loam soil. They attributed the increase in MBC to increased root growth, root exudates, mucigel and sloughed-off cells. The FYM and inorganic fertilizers have been reported to have both positive and negative effects on MBC and microbial activities [60]. Studies have shown that application of organics, including FYM and NPK fertilizer had significantly increased the organic carbon and microbial biomass [61, 62].
The higher DHA in INM and MINM treatments is mainly attributed to the higher microbial activity stimulated by the increased root density and subsequent higher root exudation in cotton than RDF or FYM/ECC alone. Among the soil enzymes, dehydrogenase activity is considered an indicator of microbial oxidative activity as it occurs only in the viable cells, and frequently correlates with respiratory activity in soil [63]. Positive correlations between DHA and Bt-cotton cultivation are well documented [64, 65]. DHA in soil is reported to largely depend on the soluble organic C content [66], and the application of organic manures to soils is reported to significantly increase DHA activity [67]. However, DHA varies due to soil properties, including soil aeration and water availability [68].
Soil phosphatase plays a major role in the mineralization of organic P to inorganic form, thus enhancing P availability in the soil for plant and microbial uptake [69]. Possibly, cotton seed inoculation with efficient phosphate solubilizing microbes along with organic and inorganic input would have accelerated the alkaline phosphatase activity and P solubilizing efficiency in the rhizosphere, enhancing cotton SCY and fibre properties. The β-glucosidase is an important indicator of carbon cycling in the environment, which degrades the cellulose to glucose; subsequently, enhances the bioavailability carbon in the soil for microbial activities [70]. The increased BG activity in the INM and MINM indicates efficient carbon cycling in those treatments compared with RDF. The FYM and ECC supplementation with chemical fertilizer has enhanced the BG activity and subsequent carbon mineralization.
Cotton stalk compost and microbial seed treatment on soil nutrient availability
Treating cotton seed with microbial consortia found to reduce the soil pH by one unit (7.27) compared to untreated seed plot (7.38). In sub-treatments, FYM, INM, and MINM decreased the soil pH by 4.3% and 3.3%, respectively, compared to the initial soil pH (7.54) (Table 3). The soil bulk density (BD) found to get reduced by microbial seed treatment as that of untreated. The INM, MINM, and FYM treatment showed on par reduction in soil BD, which amounts to 6.9–8.0% reduction in BD compared to the initial soil BD (Table 3). Though the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is essential for soil-buffering and soil binding (soil structure), excess soil CaCO3 can induce sodicity, which affects soil properties including drainage, infiltration rate, nutrient availability, and crop productivity. Treating cotton seed with microbial consortia found to reduce CaCO3 % by 0.4% compared to untreated seed plots. The INM and MINM reduced the soil CaCO3, by 3.0% and 2.6%, respectively compared to the initial soil CaCO3 (Table 3). The soil organic carbon (OC) content was increased by 3.8% through microbial seed treatment compared to untreated seed plot. Similarly, in the sub-treatments, the INM, MINM, and FYM showed on par results in the enhancement of OC, which amounts to 19 to 21% increase in OC compared to the initial soil OC.
Table 3
Nutrient management practices on soil nutrient availability after three years of experimentation
Treatments
|
pH
|
BD
|
CaCO3
|
OC
|
N
|
P
|
K
|
Ca
|
S
|
Mg
|
Zn
|
Cu
|
Mn
|
Bo
|
Initial values
|
7.54
|
1.87
|
7.58
|
4.8
|
176
|
14.5
|
503
|
48.27
|
0.64
|
17.62
|
0.40
|
1.61
|
13.83
|
1.29
|
Main treatments
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- (MC)
|
7.38
|
1.78
|
7.48
|
5.3
|
198.5
|
20.6
|
542.4
|
50.3
|
0.79
|
22.3
|
0.66
|
2.17
|
14.5
|
2.11
|
+ (MC)
|
7.27
|
1.75
|
7.45
|
5.5
|
209.0
|
22.5
|
555.6
|
52.3
|
0.87
|
24.5
|
0.71
|
2.20
|
15.0
|
2.24
|
LSD0.05
|
0.006
|
0.006
|
0.007
|
0.05
|
0.588
|
0.05
|
1.043
|
0.344
|
0.007
|
0.064
|
0.006
|
0.006
|
0.023
|
0.015
|
Sub treatments
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
RDF
|
7.37d
|
1.82c
|
7.53c
|
5.0d
|
187.9e
|
18.5d
|
536.3c
|
50.5d
|
0.77c
|
21.3d
|
0.59d
|
1.65c
|
14.6c
|
1.44c
|
INM
|
7.29b
|
1.73a
|
7.38b
|
5.8a
|
225.6b
|
24.4a
|
577.0a
|
54.4b
|
1.01a
|
27.6a
|
0.86a
|
2.51a
|
15.8a
|
2.69a
|
MINM
|
7.29b
|
1.72a
|
7.34a
|
5.8a
|
231.0a
|
25.1a
|
574.3a
|
55.0a
|
1.00a
|
27.1a
|
0.84a
|
2.50a
|
15.7a
|
2.65a
|
Only FYM
|
7.21a
|
1.74a
|
7.43b
|
5.7a
|
211.0c
|
24.4b
|
566.1b
|
52.8c
|
0.88b
|
25.7b
|
0.80b
|
2.53a
|
15.4b
|
2.61b
|
Only ECC
|
7.34c
|
1.76b
|
7.52c
|
5.5c
|
204.0d
|
23.4c
|
562.2b
|
52.5c
|
0.79c
|
24.2c
|
0.70c
|
2.39b
|
14.8c
|
2.54b
|
Control
(No nutrients)
|
7.47e
|
1.85d
|
7.60d
|
4.5e
|
163.4f
|
13.5e
|
478.3d
|
42.5e
|
0.55d
|
14.6e
|
0.32e
|
1.51d
|
12.0d
|
1.11d
|
LSD0.05
|
0.011
|
0.010
|
0.011
|
0.09
|
1.019
|
0.102
|
1.807
|
0.597
|
0.012
|
0.111
|
0.011
|
0.010
|
0.039
|
0.025
|
Interaction
(Main x Sub)
LSD0.05
|
0.015
|
0.014
|
0.016
|
0.12
|
1.441
|
0.145
|
2.555
|
0.844
|
0.017
|
0.157
|
0.016
|
0.015
|
0.055
|
0.036
|
All values are mean of three replications; - (MC), without microbial consortia seed treatment, + (MC), with microbial consortia seed treatment; pH (1:2); Bulk density (BD) expressed in Mg m− 3; Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) expressed in %; soil organic carbon (OC) expressed in g kg− 1; Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) expressed in kg ha− 1; Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium expressed in cmol (p+) kg− 1; Sulphur (S), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), and Boron (Bo) expressed in mg kg− 1. Values indicating superscript letters are statistically significant according to the Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test (p < 0.05) among the treatments. |
In primary nutrients, microbial seed treatment significantly enhanced the available N, P, and K by 5%, 9%, and 2%, respectively, compared to the untreated plots. Similarly, in sub-treatment plots, the MINM and showed on par resulted in the enhancement of available N, P, and K, which amounts to 20%-23%, 32%-36%, and 7%-7.5% increase in N, P, and K compared to the initial soil N, P, and K, respectively (Table 3). In secondary nutrients, similar trend was observed in the enhancement of Ca, S, and Mg. Microbial seed treatment significantly enhanced Ca, S, and Mg by 4%, 10%, and 9.9%, respectively, compared to the untreated plots (Table 3). In sub-treatment plots, the MINM and INM showed on par results in the enhancement of secondary nutrients, which amounts to 7.7%-8.9%, 30%-31%, and 27%-30% increase in the Ca, S, and Mg content compared to the initial soil Ca, S, and Mg content, respectively (Table 3). In addition to INM and MINM, the FYM and ECC application significantly enhanced secondary nutrient availability compared with RDF as well the initial soil values.
Microbial seed treatment significantly enhanced the micronutrient availability by 7.6% for Zn, 1.3% for Cu, 3.5% for Mn, and 6% for Bo compared to the untreated plots (Table 3). In sub-treatment, the MINM and INM showed on par results in the enhancement of micronutrients, which amounts to 42%-46%, 51%-52%, 7.5%-8.2%, and 84%-87% increase in Zn, Cu, Mn, and Bo compared to the initial soil Zn, Cu, Mn, and Bo contents, respectively. Application of FYM and ECC also significantly enhanced the micronutrient availability compared with RDF and the initial soil test values.
Enhancement and protection of soil health is essential to the sustainability of agriculture [71]. Under the pressure of increasing food, fodder, feed, fibre and fuel production, soil has been used as a substrate for plant growth with substantial dependence on an external supply of plant nutrients (organic or inorganic). Soils of various agro-ecological zones have developed exhaustion with declining productivity, predominantly of plant nutrients due to non-replenishment of essential nutrients [72]. Though, the application of organic manure is recommended in agriculture, due to its non-availability, most farmers depend solely on chemical fertilizers, which in long-run affects soil health and crop productivity. In agriculture, the application of compost is reported to have longer-lasting effects on soil health improvement compared to residue or manure application directly, as the former contain highly degraded organic material with readily available nutrients supports plant growth [73]. Further, nutrient release from matured compost is faster and effective to adjacent rhizosphere enhancing microbial activity compared to the direct incorporation of crop residues in soils [74]. Additionally, integrated use of organic and inorganic nutrient sources with microbial seed inoculation is expected to modulate the soil physical and chemical properties, accelerating the microbial activity in the rhizosphere resulting in enhanced crop growth and soil health, compared to either organic or chemical input alone. The role of integrated nutrient management in enhancing soil quality has been reported by several authors [75]. Several studies have shown that the integration of plant beneficial microorganisms as seed treatment and soil application in INM can synergistically enhance crop and soil productivity [76, 77].
Economics of cotton stalk compost vis-à-vis farmyard manure application in Bt-cotton production
There was a saving of US$ 15.06 in the INM and MINM treatments over RDF treatment. Furthermore, the FYM that is in short supply entails an expenditure of US$ 34.24 ha− 1. Substitution of ECC in the MINM treatment saved a sum of US$ 23.24 ha− 1 including the ECC production cost of US$ 11.0 (Table 4). Fertilizers and manures are the essential agri-inputs contributing to 9.55% and 3.2%, respectively to the total cost cultivation in cotton in India [7]. However, the cultivation of high yielding hybrids with greater nutrient demand [78] and decline in fertilizer productivity contributed to an increase in the amounts of fertilizer use in cotton production [79]. Our study, demonstrates the potential saving on fertilizers and manure costs through substitution of FYM with ECC by recycling cotton stalks, which are otherwise brunt off as waste material. Utilizing ECC would benefit the poor and marginal farmers by reducing the cost of cultivation. Moreover, 50% reduction in nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic fertilizers would reduce the environmental foot print.
Table 4
Economic viability of enriched cotton stalk compost vis-à-vis farmyard manure application in Bt-cotton production
Inorganic nutrients/manures
(US$)
|
RDF
|
INM
|
MINM
|
Urea
|
14.63
|
9.75
|
9.75
|
Single super phosphate
|
14.79
|
9.98
|
9.98
|
Muriate of potash
|
16.64
|
11.27
|
11.27
|
Farmyard manure
|
-
|
34.24
|
-
|
ECC production cost
|
-
|
-
|
11.00
|
Cost of NPK + manure
|
46.00
|
65.24
|
42.00
|
All the inorganic and manure cost has been calculated in INR and converted to US$ @ 73 INR; Urea, US$ 0.081 kg− 1; Single super phosphate US$ 0.123 kg− 1; Muriate of potash US$ 0.268 kg− 1; Farmyard manure, US$ 0.006 kg− 1 |