Descriptive Data
The students showed a medium level of stress (M = 4.1, SD = 1.1) from their studies, whereas 62.8% reported no to medium and 37.2% high to very high concerns about their professional future due to corona. Of the participants, 15.8% stated that they did not have or tended to have insufficient financial resources for their living expenses. The majority (62.6%) reported no financial losses during the pandemic, with slight losses reported by 28.7% and severe losses by 8.7%. On average, students experienced a high level of impairment (M = 4.4, SD =1.2) due to corona, while the impairment was associated with greater mental strain (M = 4.0, SD = 1.2).
General Health.
Of the students, 38.5% reported that their general health was very poor (2.3%) to somewhat poor, whereas 62.5% reported somewhat good to very good (4.3%). They slept for 7.1 hours (SD = 1.4) and reported a medium level of life satisfaction (M = 3.1, SD =1.0). At the time of the survey, 15.4% were undergoing psychological and/or psychiatric treatment. Of the participants, 24.5% said they did not feel lonely at all, 43.7% on single days, 18.0% on more than half of the days, and 13.8% on almost every day.
Current State of Mental Health (Question 1)
Students reported a mean score of 11.0 (SD = 5.7) on the PHQ-9, with women (M = 11.5, SD =5.7) showing significantly (p <.001, t = -3.6, d = -0.25) higher sum scores than men (M = 10.1, SD =5.6). Above the cut-off value of ≥10 were 56.4% of the students (men = 49.2%, women = 59.8%). Regarding the item “Thoughts that you would be better off dead, or of hurting yourself“, 72.2% of the students said they did not have these thoughts at all, 21.1% on single days, 5.0% on more than half of the days, and 1.7% on almost every day.
On the GAD-7, the participants reported a mean score of 8.2 (SD = 4.9), with women (M = 8.7, SD =4.9) showing significantly (p <.001, t = -4.8, d = -0.33) higher sum scores than men (M = 7.1, SD =4.6). Above the cut-off value of ≥10 were 35.7% of the students (men = 26.7%, women = 40.1%).
The frequencies of the categories of the symptoms are shown in Table 3. There were significant differences in the distributions between men and women in both the PHQ-9 (Chi² = 17.7, p = .001) and the GAD-7 (Chi² = 24.3, p < .001). Men reported suffering from no/minimal mood problems or worrying more often.
A sum score of ≥10 on both the PHQ9 and the GAD 7 was reported by about one-third of the sample (33.4%), with considerably more women (37.5%) than men (25.1%) meeting this criterion. The sum scores showed a high inter-correlation of r =.77 (p <.001) in our total sample.
Table 3
Frequencies of Mood Problems (Depressive Symptoms; PHQ-9) and Worrying (GAD-7) in the Total Sample as Well as Gender Differences.
|
Total sample
|
Male
|
Female
|
Male vs. Female
|
PHQ-9 (Mood problems)
|
|
|
|
|
None-minimal (0-4)
|
12.2%
|
18.1%
|
9.5%
|
|
Mild (5-9)
|
31.5%
|
32.7%
|
30.7%
|
Chi² = 17.7, p = .001
|
Moderate (10-14)
|
27.9%
|
25.7%
|
29.2%
|
|
Moderately Severe (15-19)
|
20.5%
|
17.8%
|
21.4%
|
|
Severe (20-27)
|
8.0%
|
5.7%
|
9.2%
|
|
GAD-7 (Worrying)
|
|
|
|
|
None-minimal (0-4)
|
24.6%
|
33.0%
|
20.9%
|
|
Mild (5-9)
|
39.8%
|
40.3%
|
39.0%
|
Chi² = 24.3, p < .001
|
Moderate (10-14)
|
23.6%
|
19.4%
|
25.6%
|
|
Severe (15-21)
|
12.1%
|
7.3%
|
14.4%
|
|
PHQ-9 and GAD-7 ≥ 10
|
33.4%
|
25.1%
|
37.5%
|
|
Mental Health of Students Starting During the Pandemic (Question 2)
Students who began studying within the corona pandemic (n = 356; enrolled for one to four semesters; M = 11.5; SD = 5.7) showed significantly (p <.047, t = 2.0, d = 0.15) more mood problems than students who had been studying longer (n = 395; enrolled for five to ten semesters; M = 10.6; SD = 5.7). There were no significant differences regarding the average degree of general worrying (M1-4 semesters = 8.4; SD = 4.9; M5-10 semesters= 8.0; SD = 4.9). Since the standard duration of study for many study fields in Germany is ten semesters, students who were enrolled for more than ten semesters were excluded from these analyses.
Conceptualizing Risk Profiles (Question 3)
Because gender is used in the following analyses, only students who indicated whether they were male or female are included in the models. (n = 904). As a first step, the PHQ-9 (normally five dimensions) and GAD-7 (normally four dimensions) dimensions were reduced to three groups for simplification - PHQ-9: 1.) no/mild (n = 397; 43.9%) 2.) moderate (n = 253; 28.0%) and 3.) moderately severe /severe symptoms (n = 254; 28.1%) as well as the GAD-7: 1.) no/mild (n = 584; 64.6% ) 2.) moderate (n = 212; 23.5%) and 3.) severe symptoms (n = 108; 11.9%).
To identify risk profiles, multinomial logistic regression models (Table 4) were calculated separately for the PHQ-9 and GAD-7. The reference group in each case was the no/mild symptoms group.
Mood Problems (PHQ-9).
Higher study stress (p <.001, OR =1.40), not enough financial resources (p = .027, OR = 1.91), higher strain due to corona (p <.001, OR = 1.56), and more loneliness (p <.001, OR = 1.71) were significantly associated with moderate depressive symptoms, whereas increased life satisfaction (p <.001, OR = 0.51) and psychological/psychiatric treatment (p =. 019, OR = 0.51) were significantly related to better mental health. In contrast, gender, hours slept, and a committed partnership were not systematically associated with the one or other mental health status.
With respect to the category severe symptoms, the same factors became significant, but with higher effect sizes. Furthermore, females had an increased risk (p = .019, OR = 1.78), whereas more sleep was associated with better mental health (p = .011, OR = 0.80). Being in a committed partnership was also not significant in this model. The regression model explained a large part of the variance (52%).
Worrying (GAD-7).
Being female (p = .011, OR = 1.66), higher study stress (p = .009, OR = 1.27), more strain due to corona (p = .001, OR = 1.34), and more loneliness (p < .001, OR = 1.76) were significantly related to moderate worrying symptoms, while higher life satisfaction (p < .001, OR = 0.50) was associated with lower worrying. Additionally, being in a current
Table 4
Results of the Multinominal Logistic Regression Models to Explain Mood Problems (PHQ-9) as Well as Worrying (GAD-7; Reference Group: No/Mild Symptoms).
|
|
PHQ-9
|
GAD-7
|
|
|
B
|
SD
|
p
|
Lower
|
OR
|
Upper
|
d
|
B
|
SD
|
p
|
Lower
|
OR
|
Upper
|
d
|
|
Gender
(0 = male; 1 = female)
|
0.4
|
0.2
|
.065
|
1.0
|
1.44
|
2.1
|
0.20
|
0.5
|
0.2
|
.011
|
1.1
|
1.66
|
2.5
|
0.28
|
|
Study stress
|
0.3
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.2
|
1.40
|
1.7
|
0.19
|
0.2
|
0.1
|
.009
|
1.1
|
1.27
|
1.5
|
0.13
|
|
Enough financial resources
(0 = yes; 1 = no)
|
0.6
|
0.3
|
.027
|
1.1
|
1.91
|
3.4
|
0.36
|
0.5
|
0.2
|
.064
|
1.0
|
1.58
|
2.6
|
0.25
|
|
Strain due to corona
|
0.4
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.3
|
1.56
|
1.8
|
0.25
|
0.3
|
0.1
|
.001
|
1.1
|
1.34
|
1.6
|
0.16
|
moderate symptoms
|
Life satisfaction
|
-0.7
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
0.4
|
0.51
|
0.6
|
-0.37
|
-0.7
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
0.4
|
0.50
|
0.6
|
-0.38
|
Loneliness
|
0.5
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.3
|
1.71
|
2.2
|
0.30
|
0.6
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.4
|
1.76
|
2.2
|
0.31
|
|
Hours slept
|
-0.1
|
0.1
|
.069
|
0.8
|
0.87
|
1.0
|
-0.08
|
-0.1
|
0.1
|
.319
|
0.8
|
0.93
|
1.1
|
-0.04
|
|
Treatment
(0 = no; 1= yes)
|
-0.7
|
0.3
|
.019
|
0.3
|
0.51
|
0.9
|
-0.37
|
-0.2
|
0.3
|
.519
|
0.5
|
0.84
|
1.4
|
-0.10
|
|
Partnership
(0 = no; 1 = yes)
|
0.2
|
0.2
|
.346
|
0.8
|
1.21
|
1.8
|
0.11
|
0.6
|
0.2
|
.002
|
1.2
|
1.86
|
2.8
|
0.34
|
|
Intercept
|
-0.8
|
1.1
|
.453
|
|
|
|
|
-2.8
|
1.0
|
.007
|
|
|
|
|
|
Gender
(0 = male; 1 = female)
|
0.6
|
0.2
|
.019
|
1.1
|
1.78
|
2.9
|
0.32
|
1.0
|
0.3
|
.002
|
1.4
|
2.59
|
4.8
|
0.53
|
|
Study stress
|
0.5
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.4
|
1.70
|
2.1
|
0.29
|
0.5
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.3
|
1.71
|
2.3
|
0.30
|
|
Enough financial resources
(0 = yes; 1 = no)
|
0.7
|
0.3
|
.023
|
1.1
|
2.09
|
4.0
|
0.41
|
0.8
|
0.3
|
.014
|
1.2
|
2.14
|
3.9
|
0.42
|
|
Strain due to corona
|
0.7
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.6
|
1.95
|
2.4
|
0.37
|
0.4
|
0.1
|
.001
|
1.2
|
1.50
|
1.9
|
0.22
|
severe symptoms
|
Life satisfaction
|
-1.7
|
0.2
|
<.001
|
0.1
|
0.19
|
0.3
|
-0.92
|
-1.0
|
0.2
|
<.001
|
0.3
|
0.37
|
0.5
|
-0.54
|
Loneliness
|
0.8
|
0.1
|
<.001
|
1.7
|
2.28
|
3.0
|
0.45
|
0.7
|
0.2
|
<.001
|
1.5
|
1.98
|
2.7
|
0.38
|
|
Hours slept
|
-0.2
|
0.1
|
.011
|
0.7
|
0.80
|
1.0
|
-0.12
|
-0.3
|
0.1
|
.001
|
0.6
|
0.74
|
0.9
|
-0.17
|
|
Treatment
(0 = no; 1= yes)
|
-0.8
|
0.3
|
.011
|
0.2
|
0.44
|
0.8
|
-0.45
|
-1.3
|
0.3
|
<.001
|
0.1
|
0.26
|
0.5
|
-0.74
|
|
Partnership
(0 = no; 1 = yes)
|
0.4
|
0.2
|
.110
|
0.9
|
1.47
|
2.4
|
0.21
|
0.8
|
0.3
|
.004
|
1.3
|
2.22
|
3.8
|
0.44
|
|
Intercept
|
-0.4
|
1.3
|
.731
|
|
|
|
|
-2.3
|
1.5
|
.115
|
|
|
|
|
|
Model characteristics
|
Model PHQ-9: Chi² (18) = 557.0, p < .001
R² = .46 (Cox-Snell), .52 (Nagelkerke)
|
Model GAD-7: Chi² (18) = 385.3, p < .001
R² = .35 (Cox-Snell), .42 (Nagelkerke)
|
partnership was a significant factor (p = .002, OR = 1.86) as well. Not enough financial resources, hours slept, and psychological/psychiatric treatment were non-significant factors.
However, in terms of the severe worrying category, not enough financial resources (p = .014, OR = 2.14), hours slept (p = .001, OR = 0.74), and psychological/psychiatric treatment (p <.001, OR = 0.26) were also found to be significant characteristics, in addition to the other factors (higher effect sizes) previously mentioned, making all factors significant in the model. The regression model explained a large part of the variance (42%).
Partnerships During the Corona Pandemic (Question 4)
Table 5 shows the data collected on partnership. On average the students reported that they have been in 1.9 (SD = 1.6; Range: 0-12) committed partnerships. Slightly more than half (51.8%) of the students were in a committed, 4.3% were in a loose, and 2.3% were in an open partnership at the time of the survey. Furthermore, 15.2% had never had a committed partnership and 26.4% were currently in no partnership. Of the students in some form of partnership, 25.1% indicated that the partnership had improved and 22.3% indicated that it had worsened during corona. While 10.7% were very unhappy to unhappy in their current partnership, the majority was happy to very happy (89.3%). Most students (61.5%) had sex in their partnership one to three times or more per week and 70% of the participants were satisfied with the frequency of sex in their partnership.
Sexual Behavior During the Corona Pandemic (Question 5)
The students reported that they have had 5.1 (SD = 9.0; Range: 0-120) sex partners and 1.9 One-Night-Stands (SD = 6.7; Range: 0-100), while 18.9% reported that they have had zero sex partners at the time of the survey. Sixty-four percent of them have had unprotected sex and 40.9% are unhappy with their current sex life. Of the students in partnerships, 26.8% reported that they are having less sex (much less: 10.8%) and 20.8% that they are having more sex during corona, whereas single students reported less sexual behavior (31%; much less: 21.5%) more
Table 5
Descriptive Data of Students’ Partnerships and Sex Life
Partnership data
|
n (%)
|
Sex data
|
n (%)
|
Number of partnerships
|
|
Number of sex partners
|
|
0
|
185 (20.0%)
|
0
|
173 (18.9%)
|
1-3
|
633 (68.5%)
|
1-3
|
393 (43.0%)
|
4-5
|
85 (9.2%)
|
4-5
|
121 (13.2%)
|
> 5
|
21 (2.3%)
|
> 5
|
227 (24.8%)
|
Change in partnership during corona (n =534)
|
Change in sex life during corona (all students)
|
Much worse
|
15 (2.8%)
|
Much less
|
139 (15.2%)
|
A little worse
|
104 (19.5%)
|
A little less
|
122 (13.3%)
|
No change
|
281 (52.6%)
|
No change
|
517 (56.4%)
|
A little better
|
103 (19.3%)
|
A little more
|
81 (8.8%)
|
Much better
|
31 (5.8%)
|
Much more
|
57 (6.2%)
|
Happiness with partnership (n =536)
|
Happiness with sexuality
|
|
Very unhappy
|
8 (1.5%)
|
Very unhappy
|
64 (7.0%)
|
Unhappy-somewhat unhappy
|
49 (9.2%)
|
Unhappy-somewhat unhappy
|
309 (33.9%)
|
Happy-somewhat happy
|
338 (63.0%)
|
Happy-somewhat happy
|
431 (47.3%)
|
Very happy
|
141 (26.3%)
|
Very happy
|
108 (11.8%)
|
Frequency of sex in partnerships (n = 532)
|
Number of One-Night-Stands
|
|
Never
|
21 (3.9%)
|
0
|
563 (62.1%)
|
Less than 1 time per month
|
42 (7.9%)
|
1-3
|
240 (26.5%)
|
1-3 times per month
|
142 (26.7%)
|
4-5
|
41 (4.5%)
|
1-3 times per week
|
327 (61.5%)
|
> 5
|
63 (6.9%)
|
Sex life during corona in partnerships (n = 539)
|
Sex life during corona in single students (n = 377)
|
Much less
|
58 (10.8%)
|
Much less
|
81 (21.5%)
|
A little less
|
86 (16.0%)
|
A little less
|
36 (9.5%)
|
No change
|
283 (52.5%)
|
No change
|
234 (62.1%)
|
A little more
|
65 (12.1%)
|
A little more
|
16 (4.2%)
|
Much more
|
47 (8.7%)
|
Much more
|
10 (2.7%)
|
frequently and more sexual behavior less frequently (6.9%). The two groups differed significantly in their distributions (Chi² = 55.7, p < .001).