Multi-Level Policy for Low Carbon Emission in the BRICS Countries
This paper will take an overview of the strategy adopted by the BRICS countries to reduce carbon emissions. The BRICS summits and environment ministers' meetings have supported the UN's CC initiatives, particularly the G20 and UN summits' rising action on sustainable development, CC, and biodiversity. The UN has received similar support from the majority of BRICS summit commitments. Improving collaboration and continuing the exchange of knowledge reduce the adverse effect of CC on food security and agriculture is one of the aims of BRICS countries (2). The study delved into three recent policies adopted by each government in the BRICS countries to solve CC issues, GHG, carbon emission, and general environmental problems. This section will provide insight into the aims and objectives of some of these projects and policies and how they can lead to LCE in the BRICS countries.
Brazil s pathway to a low carbon economy
Brazil is among the five significant emergings "BRICS" countries, and it has the world's sixth-highest GHG emissions (36). In the run-up to the Paris climate change summit, Brazil boosted the ambition of its climate initiatives through various programs and activities (36). Green finance tools, such as green bonds and green loans, can channel vast private capital towards climate and environment-friendly investments. Investors commit to climate-related projects by boosting the use of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and adapting to CC. In Brazil, private capital is exceptionally significant, especially given the country's vulnerable fiscal status. The key to Brazil's LCE and environmentally sustainable economy is a compelling blend of private and public engagement (37). Brazil's Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply (MAPA) announced the ABC+ Sectoral Plan for Climate Change Adaptation and Low Carbon Emission in Agriculture Seeking Sustainable Development (2020-2030) on Apr 20, 2021. The plan aims to strengthen Brazilian agriculture by establishing sustainable, resilient, and productive systems. MAPA serves as a tool for promoting sustainable agriculture by implementing adaptation and mitigation techniques for GHG emissions. In the third quarter of 2021, a document will be released that will outline the plan's actions and quantitative goals of Brazil towards LCE (38). Three of the most recent policies outlined by Brazil to reach LEC are discussed below:
National Energy Plans 2030 and 2050
The Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) and the Brazilian Energy Research Company launched the 2050 National Energy Plan (PNE 2050). The MME coordinates the program, supporting construction, appliances, and manufacturing efforts. Other more recent measures emphasizing energy efficiency include the MME and (PNE 2030), which estimates that by 2030, Brazil will have cut its energy use by 10%. The MME is currently working on the PNE 2050 National Energy Plan, which will likely be completed shortly (40). Analysis and estimates of economic development, energy demand, and output potential will be used to inform energy policy for the next 30 years (40). The Governmental Energy Research Company emphasizes investing in modern renewable energies such as wind and solar; the plan estimates a relative increase in energy supply from thermal power plants fueled by natural gas and coal (41).
Plan to Control Illegal Deforestation and Recovery of Native Vegetation (PPCDAm and PPCerrado)
The Executive Committee for the Control of Illegal Deforestation and the Recovery of Native Vegetation is established by this Decree, comprising 12 articles. It sets the committee's composition, tasks, and responsibilities above, proposing planning, articulating, and integrating strategies to prevent and control illegal deforestation and native vegetation recovery (42). Forest legislation was identified by the (PPCDAm and PPCerrado) as a system of laws that govern the exploitation and utilization of forest resources. The plan aimed at protecting regions or resources in Brazil date back to the colonial period, with the primary goal of ensuring control over the management of certain features such as flora, water, and soil (43)
Providing for the establishment of the Amazon Fund
The Amazon Fund is a ground-breaking project for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) finance. The fund was established to gather non-reimbursable investments into deforestation prevention, monitoring, combat, conservation, and sustainable environment in Brazil (44). The Brazilian National REDD+ Strategy (ENREDD+) was approved at the end of 2015, with the overall goal of preventing illegal deforestation, promoting forest ecosystem conservation and restoration, and fostering a low-carbon, sustainable forest economy while providing environmental, social, and economic benefits (44). Some of the Brazilian government's policies, strategies, and action plans in achieving low-carbon emission are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Some policies and action plans of Brazil on carbon emission control
Policies, Strategies, and Action Plans
|
Year
|
Brazil became the signatory nation of the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC)
|
1992
|
Brazil signed the "Kyoto Protocol."
|
1997
|
National Energy Efficiency Plan
|
2011
|
Mining Sector Plan for mitigation and adaptation to climate change - Plan for low carbon mining
|
2013
|
Agricultural Sector Plan for mitigation and adaptation to climate change and the consolidation of a low carbon economy in agriculture (Plan ABC)
|
2013
|
Transport Sector Plan for mitigation and adaptation to Climate Change
|
2013
|
National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change Vol I and II
|
2016
|
Decree No. 8.972 creating the National Policy for the Recovery of Native Vegetation
|
2017
|
Decree no 9.17 administrative infractions and penalties to the environment
|
2017
|
Ten-Year Energy Expansion Plan (PDE 2029)
|
2018
|
Decree No. 9308 establishing the annual compulsory targets for greenhouse gas emission reduction related to fuel trade referred to in Law No. 13.576
|
2018
|
Inter-ministerial Committee on Climate Change.
|
2019
|
Decree no. 10.387 to provide incentives for financing infrastructure projects with environmental and social benefits.
|
2020
|
Providing for the establishment of the Amazon Fund
|
2020
|
Plan to Control Illegal Deforestation and Recovery of Native Vegetation (PPCDAm and PPCerrado)
|
2020
|
National Energy Plans 2030 and 2050 (PNE)
|
2020
|
Source: Author compilation
Russia pathway to a low carbon economy
Russia saw its emissions nosedive after the Soviet Union's smokestack industries fell in 1991(45). The country is still less than half of what it was in 1990, reducing CO2 emissions compared to the UN's benchmark. Russia started to fight CC as early as the 1980s. By the late 1980s, climatologists had reached a consensus on human contributions to current global warming, resulting in the 1992 ratification of the UNFCCC. The Soviet Union was a leading climate voice in this regard (45). Russia has been actively involved in international climate negotiations for more than two decades through the United Nations, the G8 and G20, and the BRICS bloc, including the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement's commitment to avoid "dangerous interference with the climatic system" and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 (46). Russia's Energy Strategy 2035, which was established in June 2020, aims to increase the country's fossil fuel industries, concentrating on natural gas production and exports. Russia's fuel and energy complex (FEC) will become the country's economic backbone during the next decade, while the worldwide surging renewable energy sector is the solution to CC. (45).
Russia's current 2030 emissions target (25-30% lower than 1990 levels) was deemed "Critically Insufficient" by the (35). Russia's classification would be raised from "Highly Insufficient" to "Highly Sufficient," with a reduction of 33% below 1990 levels. Russia's NDC update should be much more ambitious if it plays a fair role in limiting global warming to 1.5°C, as shown in Figure 5. Three of the most recent policies outlined by Russia to reach LEC are discussed below:
Energy strategy 2035 for Russia
The Russian government approved a new Energy Strategy till 2035 in June 2020. The strategy said that one of Russia's primary objectives is to become a global leader in hydrogen production and export. It also set concrete export goals of 0.2 million tons by 2024 and 2 million tons by 2030. Energy (47). To meet these goals, the government plans to undertake the following measures (48):
i. investments in hydrogen and hydrogen-based energy mix production, transportation, and consumption;
ii. growth in natural gas-based hydrogen generation, including the use of renewable and nuclear energy;
iii. development of Russian low-carbon technologies for producing hydrogen from methane pyrolysis, electrolysis, and other methods, including by the localization of foreign technologies;
iv. internal market demand for hydrogen fuel cells in transportation, as well as the use of hydrogen and hydrogen-based energy mixes as energy storage and a conversion tool to increase the efficiency of centralized power supply systems;
Approving the hydrogen roadmap 2021-2024 for Russia
As governments and corporations worldwide (including many oil and gas giants) focus more intensely on energy transition, the commercialization of hydrogen technology might play a vital role in the global clean energy agenda. Russia recently released its hydrogen roadmap. The plan, which covers the years 2021–2024, is intended to be a first step for the Russian government, industry, and institutions to better understand the potential of hydrogen and encourage the deployment of hydrogen pilot projects (49,50).
In addition to several organizational and regulatory steps, the hydrogen roadmap calls for the development of high-priority pilot hydrogen projects that include, among other things, pilot equipment for carbon-free hydrogen production is being developed, manufactured, and used. Gas turbine development, manufacture, and testing for methane-hydrogen fuel; prototyping a hydrogen-powered train transit system; construction of low-carbon hydrogen generation pilot sites at hydrocarbon processing plants or natural gas generating plants; Hydrogen production based on nuclear power (48).
National Action Plan for the First Phase of Adaptation to Climate Change of Russia
Russia issued a comprehensive strategy to adapt its economy and society to climate change on Jan 4, 2020. The Russian government has published the National Action Plan for the First Phase of Climate Change Adaptation for Up to 2022. The statement lays out the steps that federal and regional governments will take to "lower the population's, economies, and natural environment's susceptibility to climate change impacts." Furthermore, it identifies several potential opportunities that may arise due to climate change (51). This national plan lays out the economic and social measures that will be implemented by federal and regional executive bodies to reduce the vulnerability of the Russian population, economy, and natural resources to CC's effects, as well as seize the opportunities that such changes present. This authorized national plan is the first step in adapting the economy and population to CC. It includes structural, organizational, and methodological strategies to help states build CC adaptation solutions (52). Some of the Russian government's policies, procedures, and action plans in achieving low-carbon emission are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Some policies and action plans of Russia on carbon emission control
Policies, Strategies, and Action Plans
|
Year
|
Russia became the signatory nation of the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC)
|
1992
|
Russia signed the "Kyoto Protocol."
|
1997
|
Program for Energy-Efficient Economy with an outlook to 2010
|
2001
|
Rules of Using Thermal Performance of Buildings
|
2009
|
On the Measures of Implementing Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
|
2009
|
Legislation on the limitations of associated gas flaring
|
2009
|
Decree No. 449 on the Mechanism for the Promotion of Renewable Energy on the Wholesale Electricity and Market
|
2013
|
Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction (Presidential Decree 752)
|
2013
|
State Program on Energy Efficiency and Energy Development (approved by Government Decree No 321)
|
2014
|
National Action Plan for the First Phase of Adaptation to Climate Change
|
2020
|
Energy Strategy 2035 approved by Government Decree
|
2020
|
Government Directive No. 2634-r approving the hydrogen roadmap 2021-2024
|
2020
|
Source: Author compilation
India pathway to a low carbon economy
India's energy future has implications for both global and national development goals. India's existing and projected emissions are significant enough to impact international mitigation efforts (53). India's multi-level energy and climate governance framework include the national level, federal states, and cities, each with its own set of obligations, challenges, and opportunities. It might be claimed that since India's economic liberalization in 1991, its states have grown in importance and become critical stakeholders in the country's multi-level energy and climate governance frameworks (54). After 2007, climate policy became a distinct policy field in India. This is evidenced by the announcement of India's first National Action Plan for Climate Change in 2008 and the founding of the Nation Council on Climate Change, which the Prime Minister chairs. A Parliamentary Forum on Global Warming and Climate Change has also been established to urge parliamentarians to work with climate change experts. (55). Under the Paris Agreement, India has committed to having a national grid with 40% non-fossil fuel-built electric capacity by 2030. The country had already installed 24% (87GW) of renewable energy capacity as of March 2020 (56). Three of the most recent policies outlined by India to reach LEC are discussed below:
Apex Committee for Implementation of Paris Agreement of India
India's Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has formed a high-level inter-ministerial Apex Committee for the Implementation of the Paris Agreement, confirming the country's commitment to "walk the walk" on CC (58). AIPA intends to provide a coordinated response to CC concerns to keep India on pace to meet its Paris Agreement obligations, especially its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC). AIPA would also act as a National Authority to regulate carbon markets in India per Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. AIPA will also issue guidelines on carbon pricing, market mechanisms, and other similar instruments that affect CC and NDCs. It will assess the business sector's and multilateral agencies' contributions to CC and provide recommendations on better aligning their climate actions with national priorities. (58).
Three of the most recent policies outlined by Russia to reach LEC are discussed below:
The Indian NDCs have three quantitative goals (58):
- By 2030, the intensity of gross domestic product emissions will be reduced by 33-35% compared to 2005 levels.
- By 2030, non-fossil fuel-based electricity will account for 40% of total electricity generation.
- Using afforestation programs to create a carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2.
Prime Minister's Farmer Energy Security and Upliftment Campaign (PM-KUSUM scheme)
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy created this program to assist farmers with financial incentives to migrate from fossil fuel-powered pumps to new solar-powered machinery. The primary goal of this program is to make farmers economically self-sufficient. Farmers will be allowed to set up solar plants on their farm's idle land either by themselves or in partnership with an investor under the initiative, allowing them to earn a regular income (59). The electricity generated will be acquired at or below the Electricity Regulatory Commission's set rates. Plants with capacities ranging from 500 KW to 2 MW are proposed as part of the program. Farmers with less land who want to reduce their reliance on agriculture would be the main benefactors of the scheme. The solar plant will continue to provide them with a steady stream of money (59).
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
The NAPCC addresses the urgent and critical concerns of the country through a directional shift in the development pathway, including the enhancement of the current and planned activities outlined in the technical document (60). The NAPCC also presents several steps to simultaneously advance India's development and CC-related objectives adaptation and mitigation. The NAPCC lists eight national climate change missions. (1) National Solar Mission (2) National Energy Efficiency Mission (3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat (4) National Water Mission (5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem (6) National Mission for a Green India (7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (60,61). Some of the policies, strategies, and action plans by the Indian government in achieving low-carbon emissions are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Some policies and action plans of India on carbon emission control
Policies, Strategies, and Action Plans
|
Year
|
India became the signatory nation of the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC)
|
1992
|
India signed the "Kyoto Protocol."
|
1997
|
National Electricity Policy
|
2005
|
Integrated Energy Policy
|
2006
|
National Action Plan on Climate Change
|
2008
|
National Afforestation Program - Revised Operational Guidelines
|
2009
|
National Policy on Biofuels
|
2009
|
National Mission for Electric Mobility Plan 2020
|
2012
|
National Agroforestry Policy 2014
|
2014
|
National Urban Transport Policy
|
2014
|
National Auto Fuel Policy and Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025
|
2014
|
National Electricity Plan (Generation)
|
2016
|
Tariff Policy 2006
|
2016
|
Prime Minister's Farmer Energy Security and Upliftment Campaign (PM-KUSUM scheme)
|
2019
|
Union Budget 2019-2020
|
2019
|
Notification SO 4259(E) creating the Apex Committee for Implementation of Paris Agreement
|
2020
|
Source: Author compilation
China pathway to a low carbon economy
China surpassed the United States as the world's leading GHG producer in 2007, accounting for roughly 28–30% of total worldwide emissions (62). China's remarkable emissions could be attributed to its vast socio-economic size of about 1.4 billion people, the second-largest economy, largest product exporter, most significant energy consumption, and largest energy importer. China has made remarkable economic progress over the last three decades, with a fast growth rate and increases in annual GDP (63,64). China's export is predominantly focused on value-added intermediate goods and processing trade (63) argues that rapid economic expansion leads to very high energy consumption and carbon emissions per GDP. (65) observed that China is projected to face sustained demands for CO2 reductions in the mid-and long-term due to the country's current economic situation. China must find long-term solutions to attain LCE while maintaining an appropriate rate of economic growth. China's government announced in 2005 that by 2020, emissions of CO2 per unit of GDP would be reduced by 40% to 45% (63). There have been plans to make the country carbon-neutral by 2060 and a revised objective of peaking emissions by 2030 (66). Carbon emissions are projected to rise shortly because China's economy has steadily grown despite the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, China will need to accelerate domestic low-carbon innovation to meet its 2030 goal of peaking carbon emissions and reaching carbon neutrality by 2060 (67).
In the 11th Five-Year Plan (FYP), the emphasis on energy efficiency was maintained. At the commencement of the 12th FYP, this resulted in a significant re-alignment, including low-carbon, green, sustainable development, and market-based policies (62). The Chinese government has put forward various strategic plans to achieve LCE. These policies focus on energy saving, green infrastructure, renewable energy, and low-carbon cities. In 2007, the concept of "eco-civilization was proposed to achieve LCE in China (63). Three of the most recent policies outlined by China to reach LEC are discussed below:
Pollution Control, Energy Conservation, and Carbon Reduction
The National Development and Reform Commission drafted this legislation. It intends to improve internal investment management, reinforce and standardize the central budget for pollution control, energy conservation, and CO2, and mobilize "social capital" to engage in pollution control, energy conservation, and CO2 reduction. It is intended to take the place of the "Interim Measures for the Special Management of Investment in Ecological Civilization Construction within the Central Budget (69).
The initiative was designed to support the government's Air Pollution Control Action Plan and the 13th FYP for Energy Efficiency and Clean Energy (2016-2020), emphasizing lowering air pollution at its source through better energy efficiency and the expansion of clean energy. As part of the effort, green funding was mainstreamed in financial institutions, assisting the government in meeting its objectives. Huaxia Bank, a commercial bank, received assistance from the industry to provide financing to enterprises seeking to reduce air pollution and carbon emissions by improving energy efficiency, investing in clean energy, and strengthening air pollution controls. (70).
The 14th Five-Year Plan
The work report described the road to carbon neutrality by 2060 and peaking emissions by 2030, with China increasing up efforts to decarbonize its economy. By 2021, the government has set a goal of reducing energy intensity by roughly 3%. Authorities intend to lower energy intensity by 13.5 % during the following five years and carbon intensity by 18%. According to this report, an "action plan" for achieving peak carbon emissions will be established by the end of the decade (71). The 14th Five-Year Plan lays out China's development goal and roadmap for 2021-2025 and concrete environmental and efficiency targets. The strategy reaffirms the previously stated aim of carbon neutrality by 2060 and sets a target for emissions to peak in 2030 (72,73).
New Energy Vehicle Industry Development Plan and 2020 New Energy Vehicle Promotion Subsidy Plan
The New Energy Vehicle Industry Development Plant seeks to help the country produce electric and fuel cell automobiles. The 2020 New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Promotion Subsidy Plan establishes governmental support for the electrification of vehicles in the areas of public transportation, urban public transit, road passenger transportation, rental (including online car-hailing), environmental sanitation, urban logistics and distribution, postal express, civil aviation, airport, and party transportation for the years 2020 to 2022 (74). China's Plan 2021–2035 aims to put the country in a position to meet future demand for autonomous, connected, electrified, and shared mobility. Its three main objectives are to
(1) establish a globally competitive auto industry with advanced NEV technologies and a positive brand reputation;
(2) transition to an energy-efficient and low-carbon society with a convenient charging service network and battery electric vehicles as the mainstream in sales; and
(3) improve national energy security and air quality, mitigate climate change, and stimulate economic growth (74). Some of the Chinese government's policies, strategies, and action plans in achieving low-carbon emissions are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Some policies and action plans of China on carbon emission control
Policies, Strategies, and Action Plans
|
Year
|
China became the signatory nation of the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC)
|
1992
|
China signed the "Kyoto Protocol."
|
1997
|
The "National Chinese Plan to Respond to Climate Change" was released to control carbon emission by 2010, effectively
|
2007
|
A comprehensive Work Plan for Energy Saving and Emission Reduction was initiated by the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)
|
2007
|
The NDRC's first series on "Low carbon Pilot Cities" experimented with eight cities and five provinces.
|
2010
|
|
|
China's 12th Five-Year Plan declares the goal of reducing carbon emission intensity by 17% from the 2010 baseline
|
2011
|
The first series of 'energy-saving and emission-reduction demonstration cities,' which included eight cities, lunched.
|
2011
|
The second series of 'Low-Carbon Pilot Cities' extended to 29 cities.
|
2012
|
The second series of 'energy-saving and emission-reduction demonstration cities' included 10 cities
|
2013
|
National Plan For Tackling Climate Change 2014-2020
|
2014
|
The newly revised Environmental Protection Law commenced
|
2015
|
The national carbon emission trading market was officially initiated
|
2017
|
China implemented the first green tax law, namely, the Environmental Protection Tax Law
|
2019
|
New Energy Vehicle Industry Development Plan and 2020 New Energy Vehicle Promotion Subsidy Plan
|
2020
|
14th Five-Year Plan
|
2021
|
Notice 655/2021 on Pollution Control, Energy Conservation, and Carbon Reduction
|
2021
|
Source: Author compilation
South Africa pathway to a low carbon economy
In light of the growing need for CO2 emissions and realize the potential benefits of a green-based society, the South African government has established plans to reduce carbon emissions by 34% and 42% by 2020 and 2025, respectively (75). Climate change has a significant influence on South Africa, remarkably increasing temperatures and water variability. The rate of the warming recorded in the western and northeast have been 2c per century or more, more than twice the worldwide temperature increases (76). By 2030, the National Development Plan (NDP) of South Africa intends to eradicate poverty, protect the environment, and promote economic development (77). South Africa is a signatory to the Paris Climate Change Agreement and has ratified it. South Africa's emissions are predicted to peak, plateau, and then drop beginning in 2025. The energy industry is responsible for about 80% of the country's total GHG emissions, with power generation and liquid fuel production accounting for half of that (78). There is already investing in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and public transportation to cut emissions in South Africa (78). The National Development Plan (NDP) 2030 for South Africa is a long-term strategy for the country. It identifies an ideal state where inequality and unemployment are decreased and poverty eradicates, allowing all South Africans to live well. Three of the most recent policies outlined by South Africa to reach LEC are discussed below:
Economic Reconstruction and Recovery Plan
South Africa's economic reconstruction and recovery plan, which aims to foster equitable and inclusive growth, was launched in October 2020. Many proposed measures could help South Africa adapt to a changing CC and reduce CO2 emissions while bringing long-term social and economic benefits (79). On Mar 24, 2021, the government enacted a revised draft Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), the basis of South Africa's CC response. Under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, South Africa has agreed to contribute to the global CC effort (79). Green recovery initiatives and more aggressive climate action can complement each other to cut GHG emissions, build resilience, and boost economic growth. Countries can think about how these recovery actions will help them improve their NDCs and meet the longer-term goals of the Paris Agreement, which is especially essential as the COP26 in Glasgow approaches (80).
National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS)
South Africa's National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) puts forth a coherent vision for CC adaptation and resilience and critical sectors for achieving that vision (81). As stipulated in the Paris Agreement, the NCCAS serves as South Africa's National Adaptation Plan and indicates its commitment to its international obligations under the UNFCC. The NCCAS will serve as the foundation for meeting South Africa's adaptation responsibilities under the Nationally Determined Contributions (81).
Integrated Resource Plan (IPR)
The IRP is a capacity plan for energy that attempts to estimate the country's electricity demand, how it will be supplied, and how much it will cost. On May 6, 2011, South Africa's then-Department of Energy (DoE) released the Integrated Resource Plan, which forecasted the country's estimated energy demand for the next 20 years, from 2010 to 2030. The Department of Energy envisioned the IRP as a "living plan" that would be revised regularly (82). According to the IRP, the Department of the Environment should modify the IRP at least every two years. However, this was never done, resulting in an insufficient energy mix to satisfy the constantly shifting demands. However, this was never done, resulting in an energy mix that did not sufficiently help South Africa's continually changing supply and demand circumstances, nor did it reflect worldwide technological advances in energy-generating efficiency and responsibility (82). The 2010–2030 IRP assessed the preferred generation technology needed to fulfill predicted demand growth until 2030. Affordable power, reduced GHG emissions, decreased water use, diverse electrical generation sources, localization, and regional development were all included. Some of the South African government's policies, strategies, and action plans in achieving low-carbon emissions are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Some policies and action plans of South Africa on carbon emission control
Policies, Strategies, and Action Plans
|
Year
|
South Africa became the signatory nation of the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC)
|
1992
|
South Africa signed the "Kyoto Protocol."
|
1997
|
Disaster Management Act (No. 57)
|
2003
|
Integrated Coastal Management Act (No. 24 of 2008)
|
2008
|
Integrated Coastal Management Act (No. 24 of 2008)
|
2010
|
National Climate Change Response Policy White Paper (NCCRP)
|
2011
|
National Climate Change and Health Adaptation Plan 2014-2019
|
2014
|
Sectoral Cold Spell Management Plan
|
2015
|
National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reporting Regulations
|
2017
|
National Development Plan 2030
|
2017
|
Carbon Tax Act 15
|
2019
|
National Energy Efficiency Strategy
|
2019
|
Integrated Resource Plan
|
2019
|
National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS)
|
2020
|
Economic Reconstruction and Recovery Plan
|
2020
|
Source: Author compilation
Policy Recommendation for BRICS countries Transition to LCE
This section discusses several strategies and recommendations for BRICS countries' pathway to LCE. (Figure 9). These strategies can also be applied at various scales towards CO2 emissions reduction in the BRICS countries.
1. Expand low-carbon investments and financing in the BRICS countries
A unique opportunity exists to ensure that new infrastructure investments serve the climate agenda while also encouraging economic development, and it is urgent and unprecedented. For the BRICS regions, the additional short-term costs of switching to a low-carbon energy system would be barely a fraction of the overall infrastructure financing required (83). If BRICS governments reevaluate their support for investments in greenhouse-gas-intensive activities and mainstream climate objectives into public procurement and official development assistance, public finance and investment can also catalyze the low-carbon transition. Public finance is simply one of several tools that may facilitate the transition, such as developing infrastructure, cleaning up sites, training, and retraining. An essential part of creating a transition strategy is identifying potential investors and entrepreneurs in the region who may be willing to make the most effective use of public financing (84).
2. Focus on taxation extends beyond energy
The most commonly researched environmental tax mechanisms are taxes on particular activities or consumption that generate highly damaging emissions, effluents, or residues, such as energy taxes and the carbon tax (85). While subsidies and tax expenditures favoring the development and use of fossil fuels impede low-carbon innovation, the current low oil prices also present a chance for reforms. Also, the government in the BRICS regions can provide tax incentives and subsidies to organizations or entrepreneurs who go into green business. (86) noted that an economy-wide carbon tax and governments committing to global action to reduce CO2 emissions are other ways to reduce cross-sectoral leakage in the economy.
3. Investment in Low-Carbon Cities
As a notion of urban development, low-carbon consumption and production in cities can help create more cost-effective and environmentally-friendly urban energy and ecological systems. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and minimal energy use are required in low-carbon cities (87). Cities play a significant role in global greenhouse gas emissions, particularly urban regions, which account for 67–76% of worldwide CO2 emissions and energy consumption (88). Cities have evolved into fundamental units for executing emissions-reduction measures. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and low energy usage are required in low-carbon cities in addition to a focus on economic development. To establish a win-win situation between urbanization and environmental protection, traditional energy technologies should be changed and innovated to limit the consumption of high-carbon energy and the production of urban greenhouse gases (87). Therefore, the study recommends that various governments in the BRICS should invest more in low-carbon cities, leading them to LCE. (1) added that, after 2009, many cities released their low-carbon economic development implementation plans for low-carbon city construction. Low-carbon pilots, sponge cities, low-carbon community pilots, and national low-carbon city (town) pilots are primarily responsible for achieving low-carbon cities.
4. Adapting to Circular Economy and Low-carbon Technology
The circular economy is a business model that highlights the ecosystem's regenerative capacity by reducing non-renewable resource consumption, extending the usable life of commodities, and reusing all materials that enter the economic cycle to reduce waste and pollution (85). Low-carbon technology will become more widely used as solutions become more mature on the market. The transition to clean and secure electricity will lay the groundwork for end-use electrification, a top priority (89). Low-carbon technology is one of the specialized techniques for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in buildings. Low-carbon technology emits the least amount of GHGs into the environment, specifically CO2 (90). Evaporative cooling, passive ventilation and cooling, solar photovoltaic, dehumidification, and energy recovery systems are examples of renewable and sustainable energy technologies (90).
5. The BRICS countries should revisit electricity markets
To achieve effective decarbonization of energy systems, electricity must be used. On the other hand, deregulated electricity markets do not provide the long-term price signal for investment in high-capital-cost, low-carbon technology. Newmarket arrangements, such as long-term supply agreements, as well as a robust and steady CO2 price signal, will be needed to ensure competitive and timely investment in low-carbon solutions. To stimulate investment in low-carbon technologies, jurisdictions with regulated systems should consider providing more competition (83).
6. Promote climate-friendly international trade among BRICS countries
Although the international trade regime does not restrict states from implementing aggressive climate measures, some international trade barriers can undercut climate goals. Import restrictions, for example, continue to penalize trade in some technologies required for the low-carbon transition. Many countries that are promoting greener growth by favoring domestic manufacturers of low-carbon technologies must exercise caution. Where these regulations impede international trade, they may have a negative impact on total investment and the adoption of sustainable technologies (83). BRICS countries' pathway to LCE can be successful through the promotion of climate-friendly trade among themselves.