- Biskupin and the "Lusatian" culture
Lusatian culture is a local product, an extension of earlier cultures ("Pre-Lusatian",
"Trzciniec"). It was created by farmers and cattle breeders who have long lived a sedentary lifestyle. Biskupin was built according to the plan, calculated on 1000-1200 inhabitants, and its construction had to be well organized [7]. This shows that an advanced social organization was already at that time.
Polish archaeological research of the Biskupin stronghold was carried out in the interwar period, and also from the 1950s. According to Paweł Jasienica, on the lower decks, among others, harpoons and bone bones of reindeer hunters from the older Stone Age were unearthed [7]. This means that these areas were already inhabited, though it was not a permanent settlement. But the stronghold itself on the lake was built in the middle of VIII c. BC. It represents the archeological "Lusatian culture", usually dated to the fourteenth century BC-V AD. Rudolf Virchow [8] introduced this name to the scientific circulation in the second half of the 19th century. Initially, this name was only used to depict phenomena occurring in the areas of Lusatia, where the burial grounds of ashtrays from the turn of the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age were found. Lusatian culture covers almost the entire Polish lands, north-west and central Slovakia, north and central Moravia, northern and north-eastern Bohemia, Saxony, Lusatia, eastern Thuringia and eastern Brandenburg, while in the east reaches western part of Volhynia (Fig . 1).
Neighbourhood with the Arian-Slavic Scythians (also belonging to the Iranian peoples) and the Scythian state, biologically related (genetically, dominant hg R1a1) and culturally [9, 10], could have influenced - and this impact most probably took place - on the development of the statehood of the Slavs, who the Scythians invaded in VII-VI c. BC and they could manage the area for some time. The material remains are burial mounds, like may be the Krak's Mound in Kraków, and certainly the stronghold in Chotyniec [11]. By the way, whistling Scythian arrows were also found in the Lusatian culture town of the 5th century in Ślęza [7]. The "Pre-Poles" were called Lechites, by medieval chroniclers Wincenty Kadłubek and Jan Długosz, but also Prof. Czekanowski [1]. Significantly, ancient Lechia was to extend from the Danish islands in the north to Bulgaria and the Parthian country (Iran) in the south (Vide: Kadłubek Wincenty 1208/1612, book 1, chapter 2:9-10 [12, 13]), i.e. it included, as it were, the Scythian and Slavic lands together.
Because genetic studies have determined the origin of the Aryas and Praslavs (Prasłowianie) from what is now Poland from the pre-Lusatian culture [14, 15, 16], Ario-Slavic peoples - such as the Lechites and Scythians, and maybe also Aryans from Iran, Afghanistan and India, can be treated as closely related, also linguistically [17, 18]. Jasienica could not know the results of genetic testing in recent years. However, he stated about the Lusatian culture, based on the state of knowledge available to him at the time, as follows: "The ‘Lusatian’ people are today considered by most scholars to be the direct ancestors of the Slavs. For Praslavs simply" [7: 40, 6]. If, according to recent German excavations, direct genetic ancestors of Poles fought a great battle on the Tollense River (Dolęża, Dołęcza or Doleńca) around 1250-1200 BC [19], i.e. they organized themselves before the Lusatian culture period, it could mean that:
- They had already developed a state form;
- They were the creators of the Lusatian culture;
- They were a fairly homogeneous group, which Harald Haarmann [20] directly calls the Slavs - also in the areas of ancient "Germania" - from around 2000 BC.
Proof I. Architecture
In addition to the results of genetic studies, language studies of Moszyński [17] and interdisciplinary analyzes with the deductive method, Jasienica proposed proof that we can call - from architecture. He wrote that in the village of Biskupin adjacent to the ancient stronghold, he found a hut built around 1850 and characterized it as follows: "The system of its construction is the same, as well as the meadow-sum structure of 'Lusatian' houses on the peninsula" [7: 41], i.e. in a fortified stronghold that used to be on an island. This stronghold was "surrounded by a vertical shaft of the so-called box or room-like structure: tall and strong boxes made of logs laid on a framework, filled with compacted earth in the middle. We will encounter the same method of fortification in Slavic fortifications, which are several hundred years later. Eastern Slavs especially liked this type of fortifications. The wings of the Biskupin gate turned on wooden plugs. Doors were made in a similar way in the 12th century, in Christian Gdańsk and Opole. And the streets were laid in the same way with wood" [7: 41]. Similar strongholds with a similar structure of earth and wooden embankments were built by the Lechites (Biskupin) and later - in the 4th and 12th centuries CE, such as the stronghold of Bolesław Krzywousty in Tum Łęczycki [7].
Wojciech J. Cynarski is a civil engineer by education, with a master's degree obtained for architectural and construction design, from wooden structures. He is also interested in architecture of fortifications [21, 13] and hoplology (science of weapons and military cultures). He finds the evidence from architecture cited above convincing. And, what is worth emphasizing again, this is not the only evidence.
Proof II. The art of fortification
Jasienica states after Ibrahim ibn Jakub (10th century): "The Slavs build the majority of their castles in this way. They deliberately go to meadows full of water and thickets, and then draw a circular or quadrilateral line there, depending on what they want the shape of the castle and its area, dig around (ditch) and pile up the excavated soil, strengthening it with boards and a tree resemblance of earthwork, until such a wall (rampart) reaches the dimension they desire. And they measure in it the gate from which they desire, and one enters it after a bridge from a tree" [7: 72-73].
This type of wooden bridge was also built for the castle in Biskupin. The strongholds in wetlands include, among others, Czerwień, Giecz, Kalisz and Łęczyca, and on the lake - Biskupin and Ostrów Lednicki (here a castle was actually built). Of course, fortresses were also built in strategic places, such as Głogów or Niemcza, and from the 11th (?) century also stone castles, as in Giecz and Przemyśl (both with dimensions of 35 by 15m).
"Pre-Polish strongholds with ramparts made of oak trams, clay and boulders were very good strongholds, they fulfilled their tasks flawlessly. It may seem like a deliberate exaggeration to someone, but what to do - they defended better than, for example, Italian stone fortresses (...) there is no example of the Germans capturing at least one Polish stronghold, fortified in a way known to us" - wrote Jasienica [7: 81]. The walls were 10m high and more, and their thickness was up to 25 meters. No battering ram could threaten them.
From the mid-10th century, an interesting innovative change was applied in the strongholds of
the Polans (rule of Mieszko I). Namely, the so-called hook construction was used. Well, the logs located transversely to the embankment's run were equipped with powerful catches that prevented the beams from sliding out of the upper, longitudinal layer. The construction thus became more stable. Jasienica [7: 91] concludes that "The Old Slavic fortification system was completely separate and completely different from foreign designs." You can agree with that.
- What next with the Lusatian culture?
The author of the "Slavic Genealogy" could not have today's knowledge based on genetic research, but also archeological, linguistic and various interdisciplinary, especially the last twenty years. And yet, based on the archaeological and historical knowledge of that time, he concluded: "’Lusatian’ culture evolved over time into the culture of ‘pit graves’ (in the Eastern Slavs the culture of ‘burial fields’), which already has direct links with the early Middle Ages civilization" [7: 41]. People came to the lands of today's Poland 4500 years ago (the creators of 'ribbon ceramics') Jasienica [7: 42] mistakenly identified him with the Etruscans. Most likely they were Indo-Europeans with the R1a1 haplogroup, ancestors of the Aryans and Slavs.
From Lusatian to "Pre-Polish" culture, there was a direct transition, because "the people of ‘Lusatian’ culture did not emigrate from their lands" [7: 138-139]. Tyniec (turn of the first century BC and I AD), Kalisz (an important trade center with the Roman Empire), Cieszyn (excavations of the fortifications of the Gołęszyce tribe from the I-II and IV century) and perhaps Kruszwica can testify to settlement and cultural continuity [7]. Jasienica adds agrarian evidence to the architectural evidence: "Biskupin defensive structures - effective and strong chest shafts - find analogies in much later times. We met them in large numbers throughout Poland. The great piles of clay unearthed in Gniezno may indicate that this type of fortification also existed there. (...) The biscuit-sumic Biskupin architecture also later appears as if it finds itself in many places, including the same Biskupin, but in the 19th century. The bones of domestic animals from Gniezno provided irrefutable proof that in the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th centuries, we had the same breed of cows and indigestion as they ‘the Lusatians’ knew" [7: 139].
According to Jasienica [7], Scythian (culturally) Neurians are Slavs from Greater Poland. These warriors identified with werewolves came to the north of Volhynia and Podolia, and over the Dniester in the 5th century BC. Jasienica proves this by toponyms - names of places and rivers. Let's skip the legendary King Krak in Kraków (Wawel, like Babel - royal place [21]). Apart from reflections on ancient Lechia, the country of Vistulans could function in the south of today's Poland as early as in the 4th century CE. However, Poland comes from the Polan state, i.e. this tribe in the Lechice lands, which was dominated by the native Piast dynastic. Gniezno itself was built in the 8th century CE.
With the hypothesis of the origin of Mieszko I and his team from the Vikings from the north, Jasienica deals explicitly. It was probably the mistake of the writer rewriting the old document: instead of "Ego Mesco dux" came out "Dagome iudex". Above all, however, against this hypothesis written: the chronicle of Gall Anonim, research by W. Hensel, J. Kostrzewski and J. Czekanowski, the difference in the technique of fortifications (evidence I and II), as well as the lack of language borrowings. In the 700-400 BC period, the Pomeranian territories were probably dominated by West Pomerania and Kashubians, called by the Germans Wends (German: Wenden und Winden). Perhaps they caused the removal of the Lechites from Wielkopolska to the Dniester (the above-mentioned Neurons). Meanwhile, the Wends in the 4th century BC rule even on Rügen [7].
German tribes arose from a mixture of ethnos and pre-Indo-European languages (hg I1 and others), Celtic (R1b) and Slavic (mainly R1a1) at least several hundred years, carefully counting, after Ario-Slavic tribal organizations. They emerged in disputed areas of rivalry between the mentioned ethnic and linguistic groups, especially today's northern and western Germany. Temporarily, at the turn of the old and new era, tribes of Burgunds, Goths and Vandals appeared in the Polish lands. Especially in the case of Vandals their Germanity is quite controversial, due to mixing with the Slavic population. In any case, the fall of Rome entailed the fall of the amber route and related trade, which enriched the Lechice land, country and people.
- Central centres of the Slavs
Today we do not know where the headquarters was located, organizing the army of Lechites for the battle of Tollense in the 13th c. BC. We do not know whether Biskupin was a princely stronghold or just one of many. We will try to show in a chronological order the next important centres of Slavic.
"It can be assumed that in the period historically decisive for their later development, that is, between the sixth century BC and the fourth century AD, they (the Slavs) occupied lands from the Oder to the Middle Dnieper River." - Jasienica [7: 326-327] reported after Jordanes and Tadeusz Manteuffel. In addition, those on the central Dnieper were called Antes, and Prokopius of Caesarea found the Antes on the Danube. After all, "Their (Slavs’) actual ancient headquarters was located in today's Poland" [7: 327]. We also find in Prokopius that the Slavs believed in one god, the lord of thunder, whom they worshiped by sacrificing cattle [7: 294]. Maybe it was Perun or Svarog, or it was only called differently.
The Weneds or Venets mentioned earlier were former Slavs who dominated for a long time
not only in today's East Germany, but also in the area of Lusatian culture, and even in today's Venice and the eastern part of the Balkans. Ptolemy already includes Veletis on the map from the 2nd century. Based on anthropological studies of Jan Czekanowski (comparison of the shape of the skulls), Jasienica claims that in the seventh or eighth century tribes of Czechs and Poles fell under the control of the Lechites from the west - the Polabian Slavs. "In Levy Hradec, Kruszwica and Ostrów Lednicki they became crews of the Polabian warriors" [7: 86]. It could have been the Popiel dynasty. It was only the Piasts who came from the local Polan people and they took over the power of the fallen dynasty. It was the twilight of the "Polabian empire" beaten by Charlemagne (789-791) [7]. At that time, the Czechs also resisted the Franks' attacks with difficulty. According to Jan Długosz, it was the first major defeat of the kingdom of Lechia, never invincible [16, 13]. That Lechia could have been a union of the Lechic or, more generally, Slavic tribes.
For a short time in the sixth century, the Slavic state of Samon existed (today's Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia). The Greater Moravia, founded in the 9th century, operated for less than a century. The capital was Weligrad. At the same time, there was the Vistula state on the Vistula, whose prince built a pagan temple on Łysa Góra in the 8th or 9th century. He wanted to unite Slavic tribes in this way. However, around 880, Świętopełk from Greater Moravia dominated the Vistulans and in the 9th century the Vistulans were baptized - probably in the Eastern Rite Church and Old Slavonic. According to Jasienica [7], in 906 Hungarians and Poles defeated and brought the Great Moravian State down. Polish forces were commanded by Ziemomysł or Leszek from the Piast dynasty.
In the 10th century, the strong association of Veletis and Redgoszcz (Radogoszcz) was a threat to Mieszko. This threat disappeared when Mieszko married a Czech princess, conquering a Czech ally. His baptism and his team were able to unite the land and the people of Lechia. In 980 AD with his order he founded Gdańsk, probably as a seaside town [7]. He also competed for West Pomerania and Wolin.
Even at the end of the 9th century, the Danish port of Haede was "the border between the Slavs and the Saxons and the English", and the Baltic coast "from the foothills of the Jutland Peninsula to the Vistula Żuławy belonged to the Slavs" [7: 209-210]. In the 9th and 10th centuries Wolin was one of the largest cities in Europe, inhabited by 8,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. It was mentioned by the Skalds of Jomsborg - the stronghold of Slavic Vikings. Also in the ninth century Szczecin was built. In 973, Mieszko I took Wolin and set up his crew in a fortified fortress (built with a hook system, Vide - proof I) [7].
Jasienica highly rated the achievements of the first Piasts. In his opinion, this dynasty used the political knowledge of the Lechic rulers of Polabia. Thanks to this: "The Piasts introduced the Lechic tribes under a common state roof. They used violence, they were cruel but not barbaric. This means that they did not destroy the provincial order established on a permanent basis. Rather, they improved it and protected it with the power of a large state" [7: 245]. In this way, Gniezno became the heart of the Slavic land. Especially Bolesław the Brave, who united the Lechic lands, achieved imperial power [16]. It was the turn of the 10th and 11th century.
Meanwhile, already at the beginning of the 7th century CE the "southern" Slavs occupied Dalmatia and Greece. In 912, Simeon the Great became the tsar (emperor) of Bulgaria with the capital in Presław. The Old Church Slavonic language established by Saints Cyril and Methodius became the language of the liturgy of the Eastern Christian rite in the Balkans, and later also in Kievan Rus. Jasienica gives an inscription in this language from the tenth century, which he read in one of the Bulgarian museums – “Tuk leżi Mosticz …” (Here lies Mosticz ...). In 1018, when the Polish king Boleslaw the Brave took Kiev, Bulgaria collapsed as a result of the war with the emperor Constantinople Basil II. It was until 1186, when the second Bulgarian Empire came into existence. The southern Slavs had to face the aggression of the Turkish empire. In the fourteenth century, both Bulgaria and Serbia fell (after the battle of Kosovo, June 15, 1389) [7].
In the fourteenth century, only Kraków was the sovereign centre of Slavonic, and much later Warsaw. Prague came under German rule, which was sealed by the defeat of the Czechs on Bílá hora (8 November 1620). As a result, the Czech elite became Germanized. In turn, Moscow, after being freed from the Tatars, competed with Lithuania for the Ruthenian lands. Thus, various tribes, cities and Slavic peoples consecutively gained advantage or periodic domination. Jasienica cited these facts, but at the same time warned against Russian imperial pan-Slavism, writing and praying: "Keep us from any Slavic ideology, Lord!" [7: 331].
- War art of Lechites and Poles up to the 15th century
To what extent was the Slavic “woj” (warrior) similar to Scythian or Thracian? Jasienica found a painting in Bulgaria, depicting a Thracian warrior in a "Phrygian" cap on a four-wheeled chariot - in a tomb in Kazanłyk [7]. Here, it is easy to see the kinship of clothing and martial art with the Aryans and Scythians. Despite their common ancestors, the wooded areas of legendary Lechia and today's Poland did not favour the use of chariots in battle. Still, however, Lechita used horses whose name (as well as the harness and names associated with their breeding) is native to Slavic [17]. They were small, light ponies, as evidenced by the dug horseshoes [7]. In addition to cavalry, infantry was also used quite widely. Also, the infantry was armed with bows.
However, the Slavs who reached the Balkans fought mainly on foot. According to the descriptions of Procopius and Maurice, the Slavs and Antes speak the same language, they are strong and brave, they fight without armour, mainly on foot, with a small shield and a list (spear). As before on the Baltic Sea and perhaps the Adriatic Sea (former Venice), so from the 7th century the "southern" Slavs demonstrated their knowledge of Viking fighting - "In the Aegean Sea their privateer ships appeared" [7: 294].
It has already been about the specific art of fortification. It is worth noting that the Lechic and Polish warriors could effectively defend their strongholds (the word “gród”/stronghold is also Slavic). Jasienica cites a German siege of Głogów, quoting Gall Anonim: "Germans wound up hand crossbows, while Poles made machines with crossbows; Germans fired arrows, while Poles fired arrows and other missiles; Germans made slingshots with stones, while Poles millstones and strongly sharpened piles. When the Germans, covered with wooden boards, tried to get under the embankment, the Poles gave them a bath with boiling water, covering them with burning heads. The Germans led iron rams to the gates, while the Poles rolled wheels from above, armed with steel stars. The Germans climbed the ladders and the Poles, hooking them with iron hooks, carried them into the air” [7: 50].
According to Henryk Łowmiański, the armies of Mieszko I and Bolesław the Brave were divided into three categories: higher knighthood, war team and lower knighthood. Spurs found during excavations show that this third category of warriors also used horses. There was no lack of wood for strongholds, or iron for weapons. Iron metallurgy was still cultivated in ancient Lechia BC [7]. Mieszko I - had 3,000 armoured cavalry in a team of ten troops, 300 riders per troop. Ibrahim ibn Jakub wrote that every warrior in Mieszko was worth ten others. So they had to be well-armed and well-trained. His son and the next ruler - Bolesław the Brave maintained 3900-4200 heavily armed (13-14 troops) respectively, and in the event of war he may have had as much as 17,000 to 32,000 militia together, according to various estimates.
Despite the changes in armaments and the art of war, the ethos of valour was preserved by Poles. Jasienica indicates that the exceptional efficiency of Polish knighthood and Polish war art (martial art) was confronted with the Teutonic State, which in the fourteenth century was Europe's greatest power and prevailed in the technique of war (including the art of fortification) over Poland [7, 21]. However, in the great Battle of Grunwald (1410), the combined Polish-Lithuanian forces won. "Only twelve prominent Polish knights were killed at Grunwald, although they participated in the hottest battle as wanderers. In the then fighting, involving melee combat, the weak, the less resistant died" [7: 310]. They also had to be well-trained in foot and horse fighting techniques. An example would be Zawisza Czarny of Garbów, coat of arms Sulima (1370-1428), undefeated in numerous knightly tournaments, being a model of knightly virtues.