Psychosocial contributors to Internet and social media addiction among adult women

doi:10.21203/rs.2.18528/v1

Download PDF

Research article

Psychosocial contributors to Internet and social media addiction among adult women

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.2.18528/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

1) Purpose: When speaking of behavioral addictions (especially to the Internet and social media), it is emphasized that is not the environment that is the main contributor to addiction, but rather certain behaviors and personality traits. The aim of this study was to assess the level of Internet and social media addiction on the example of Facebook with regard to psychological and social factors.

2) Methods: This survey-based study involved a group of women representative of the female population in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland (N = 556). Research instruments were a self-developed questionnaire concerning sociodemographic data, the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Internet Addiction Test, and the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale.

3) Results: Age, depressive symptoms, loneliness were the variable contributing to Internet and Facebook addiction among the studied. Available studies confirm the results of own research.

4) Conclusions: Depressive symptoms, and dependence on the Internet and Facebook were more common among single women. In the employed women we only observed higher levels of Internet and Facebook addiction. The level of dependence on the Internet and Facebook was higher among younger women. Loneliness correlated with Internet and Facebook addiction, and more severe depressive symptoms entailed higher levels of Internet and Facebook addiction.

Psychology

behavioral addiction

Internet addiction

Facebook addiction

women

The problem of addiction to the so called ‘new’ media has been present in literature for many years. For nearly a decade, researchers have been emphasizing that addiction does not necessarily develop as a result of using addictive substances, but can be an effect of excessive contact with digital technologies (Young, 1998; Hawi, Błachnio & Przepiórka, 2015). Attempts to define Internet addiction have given rise to many difficulties. According to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10^th revision, also known as the International Classification of Diseases 10^th revision (ICD–10), Internet addiction is not a distinct nosological entity, but a 'habit and impulse disorder, unspecified’. In the standard classification of mental disorders (the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM–5) of the American Psychiatric Association it has been added to the subgroup of disorders that require further investigation in the group of Addictive Disorders (Pużyński & Wciórka, 2000).

Difficulties classifying Internet addiction have resulted in a number of terms, such as Internet addiction disorder, problematic Internet use, compulsive Internet use, Internet overuse, problematic computer use, and pathological computer use. Internet addicts can be classified as specific and generalized types depending on the target of the behavior. Specific type addicts use the Internet for particular purposes, such as satisfying sexual needs, playing games online, gambling, doing shopping, etc. Generalized type addicts, on the other hand, have no specific goals using the Internet, and yet they tend to use it excessively (Davis, 2000).

The causes of Internet and social media addiction are still the subject of research. It has been found that some personality traits, such as impulsivity, involve both Internet and social network addiction (Lee at al., 2012). What is more, Internet addicts develop changes in the metabolism of the cerebral cortex that are very similar to those observed in other behavioral addictions and chemical substance dependence (e.g. disturbed glucose metabolism) (Park at al., 2012). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reveals activation of the same brain areas (Lorenz at al., 2013). Addictions can be triggered by a number of factors, among them:

genetic,
neurobiological,
psychological,
social,
spiritual.

Numerous scientists consistently regard addiction as a multifactorial phenomenon, which includes many aspects of human functioning from evolutionary adaptation through the quantum and biochemical mechanics of the brain to the complex and multidimensional interaction between a person and the environment (Janas—Kozik & Krzystanek, 2016).

The exact causes of addiction have not so far been fully understood. Some researchers suggest the role of genetic background (Hou at al., 2012). When speaking of behavioral addictions, it is emphasized that is not the environment that is the main contributor to addiction, but rather certain behaviors and personality traits, among them depression, anxiety, hostile/aggressive behavior, impulsivity, psychotic behaviors, neuroticism, shyness, low self-esteem, and dissocial personality traits (manifested by a lack of empathy, and a failure to comply with social, legal and safety standards) (Dong at al., 2011; Niewiadomski, Zawłocki & Nieroba 2015).

The aim of this study was to assess the level of Internet and social media addiction on the example of Facebook with regard to psychological (depressive symptoms, loneliness) and social (marital status, employment, age, education, place of residence) factors.

Participants

This study was conducted among female residents of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. It involved a group of 556 women representative of the female population in this region. 600 questionnaires were randomly distributed among women in offices and workplaces, 93% of which were returned. 556 correctly completed questionnaires were used in the study, 35 were rejected due to incorrect completion, and 9 for not meeting the inclusion criteria.

Measures

The following standardized research instruments were employed:

The De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJGLS)―consists of 11 items: six are formulated negatively and five are formulated positively. Answers are rated on a five-point Likert scale. The higher the final score, the greater the loneliness. This one-dimensional scale can be used to measure overall loneliness both in individual diagnosis, and in scientific research (Grygiel at al., 2012; De Jong Gierveld, Van Tilburg & Dykstra 2018).
The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a 21-item self-report measure of depressive symptoms. The points are summed up and final scores reflect the severity of depressive symptoms. A score of Scores ranging from 0 to 11 points denote a lack of depression, 12–19 points—mild depression and a recommendation to consult a psychologist/psychotherapist for further diagnosis, 20–25 points—moderate depression and a recommendation to take actions and see a psychologist/psychotherapist/psychiatrist, and 26–63 points—severe depression and the necessity to see a psychiatrist (Zawadzki, Popiel & Pragłowska 2009).
The Internet Addiction Test (IAT) has been developed by Kimberly Young, based on the criteria of pathological gambling included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM–4) of the American Psychiatric Association. The IAT is addressed to Internet users (those who use it on a daily basis). This 20-item questionnaire measures characteristics and behaviors associated with compulsive use of the Internet that include compulsivity, escapism, and dependency (Shahla et al., 2016). The Polish version of the IAT has been prepared by Hawi, Błachnio and Przepiórka (2015). Previously, the IAT was validated by R. Poprawa in 2011, but his version diverged from the original one―the number of items was increased to 22, and they were changed from questions to statements. The maximum possible score is 100 points. Scores between 0 and 39 points denote average Internet users, scores between 40 and 69 points―Internet users who occasionally or frequently have problems caused by using the Internet, and scores of 70 points or more indicate problematic use of the Internet (Rømer et al., 2013).
The Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS)―is an instrument for measuring Facebook addiction, developed by T. Torsheim, GS. Brunborg, and S. Pallesen from the Faculty of Psychosocial Sciences, University of Bergen. The instrument is a pool of 18 items, three reflecting each of the six core elements of addiction: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse. Answers are rated on a five-point scale: 1―very seldom, 2―seldom, 3―sometimes, 4―often, 5―very often. Each question refers to behaviors associated with using Facebook during the previous year. The higher the final score, the higher the level of Facebook addiction. The BFAS has been adapted to Polish conditions by Edyta Charzyńska and Jolanta Góźdź (2014) from the Faculty of Psychology, University of Silesia (Andreassen et al., 2012).

Procedure

This study based on the questionnaire survey. The inclusion criteria were: female sex, age (> 18 years), a lack of self-reported mental disorders, and place of residence in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. The exclusion criteria were not meeting the inclusion criteria and clinically confirmed mental disorders. The survey was conducted between October 2016 and May 2017. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. The data collectors explained to all participants the requirements of the questionnaires using standard instructions and emphasized the authenticity, independence, and integrity of all answers. The respondents were informed in writing about the purpose and course of the research, and that they can resign at any stage of the study. The questionnaires were collected immediately after they had finished. The average time for completing the measures was approximately 35 min. Participants were not compensated for participating in the study.

Ethics

The study was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Bioethical Commission of [covered for blind review] (approval number KB–0012/518/12/16). All subjects were informed about the study and all provided informed consent.

The study involved 556 women aged 34 ± 15 years (median = 27 years, lower / upper quartile = 22.0 / 45.0 years). Of them 269 (48.4%) had third level education, 263 (47.3%) lived in cities with a population of more than 100 thousand, 370 (66.5%) were married or cohabiting, 496 (89.2%) were employed. According to the BDI, 69 (12.4%) women had mild depressive symptoms ( 11 points), 25 (4.5%) had moderate depressive symptoms (12–26 points), 15 (2.7%) had severe depressive symptoms, and 447 (80.4%) women had no depressive symptoms. 151 (27.2%) women were at risk of Internet addiction, and 27 (4.8%) were addicted. 91 (16.4%) women obtained scores suggesting the possibility of addiction to Facebook, and 78 (14.0%) achieved scores indicating addiction.

The severity of depressive symptoms according to the BDI was Me = 4.5 (Q₁ = 1.0, Q₃ = 10.0) points, the level of loneliness according to the DJGLS was Me = 34.0 (Q₁ = 32.0, Q₃ = 36.0) points, the level of Internet dependence was Me = 31 (Q₁ = 23.0, Q₃ = 43.0) points, and the level of Facebook addiction was Me = 8.0 (Q₁ = 6.0, Q₃ = 11.0) points.

The severity of depressive symptoms, the level of loneliness, and the level of Internet and Facebook addiction with regard to sociodemographic data

There were statistically significant differences in the severity of depressive symptoms according to the Beck Depression Inventory, and the level of Internet and Facebook addiction depending on marital status. The single women had statistically significantly more severe depressive symptoms, and higher levels of Internet and Facebook addiction than the women having partners (Table 1).

There were statistically significant differences in the levels of Internet and Facebook addiction of the studied women depending on their employment status. The employed women had a statistically significantly higher level of Internet and Facebook addiction than their unemployed counterparts (Table 2).

Education and place of residence had no statistically significant effect on the severity of depressive symptoms according to the BDI, loneliness, or Internet and Facebook addiction.

Analysis of the relationships between sociodemographic data, the severity of depressive symptoms, loneliness and selected behavioral addictions.

Analysis of the relationships between sociodemographic data, the severity of depressive symptoms according to the BDI, a feeling of loneliness, and selected behavioral addictions demonstrated that the only factor contributing to Internet addiction was age.

There was a statistically significant moderate negative correlation between the log₁₀ of the IAT results and the log₁₀ of age (r = –0.34; p < 0.001).

The only variable contributing to Facebook addiction was age. There was a statistically significant moderate negative correlation between the log₁₀ of the IAT results and the log₁₀ of age (r = –0.28; p < 0.001).

There was a statistically significant correlation between the scores on the DJGLS and on the IAT―a weak negative correlation (r = –0.10; p < 0.05), and between the scores on the DJGLS and on the BFAS―a weak negative correlation (r = –0.16; p < 0.001).

There was a statistically significant Spearman’s rank correlation between the scores on the BDI and the scores on the IAT―a moderate correlation ( = 0.30; p < 0.001), and between the scores on the BDI and the scores on the BFAS―a weak correlation ( = 0.23; p < 0.001). Severe depressive symptoms entail higher levels of Internet and Facebook addiction.

Behavioral addiction to so called ‘new’ media is an increasingly serious problem in society. The available publications so far have mostly concerned teenagers, almost completely ignoring adult people. Ours is the first large-scale study to measure behavioral addictions in the population of adult women.

According to own research 27.2% women were at risk of Internet addiction, and 4.8% were addicted. 16.4% women obtained scores suggesting the possibility of addiction to Facebook, and 14.0% achieved scores indicating addiction. While the research conducted in Great Britain among students revealed an 18 percent incidence of Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD), and in Italy a 0.8 percent incidence. According to Weinstein and Lejoyeux’s review, incidence rates for IAD in the US and in Europe range from 1.5% to 8.2% (Weinstein & Lejoyeux, 2010; Young & De Abreu, 2011).

Social media and online gameplay, which are the most common digital venues for meeting friends, belong to the main sources of dependence to the Internet. People overusing the Internet claim that life in the net looks real, and that meeting friends online is emotionally enriching (Koc, Mustafa & Gulyagci, 2013).

Our investigation showed that severe depressive symptoms were related to a higher level of Internet addiction among adult women. We observed a statistically significant correlation between the scores on the BDI and the scores on the IAT. These results correspond with those reported by other authors, who informed that people suffering from depression are more likely to develop Internet dependence (Ha et al., 2006, Kim, Ryu, & Chon 2006). Loneliness and social isolation caused by excessive use of the Internet can provoke concomitant depression in people with Internet dependence (Senormanci et al., 2014). Li et al. (2019) confirmed the role of anxiety and depression as contributors to Internet addiction. However, all available studies have been conducted among men and women.

Bhardvaj et al. (2018) measured the severity of depressive symptoms with reference to Internet addiction among teenagers in Udhampur. Similarly to us, the authors employed the BDI and the IAT. The results demonstrated that Internet overusers suffered from more severe depressive symptoms according to the BDI. The mean BDI result achieved by the Internet non-addicts was threefold lower than that obtained by the addicted participants. Based on their study, Bahraian and Khazaee (2014) found that depression and low self-esteem were two main factors that contributed to and enhanced Internet dependence in students. Zaffar et al. (2015) have described a linear interaction between addiction to Facebook, anxiety and depression. However neither the results obtained by Sanders et al. (2000), nor those reported by Niemz, Griffiths and Banyard (2005) show a relationship between the severity of depressive symptoms and addiction to the Internet.

In our analysis, severe depressive symptoms involved higher levels of Facebook addiction among adult women. There was a statistically significant correlation between the BDI and the BFAS results. Our findings correspond with those obtained by Koc et al. (2013) implemented among students, who informed that greater severity of depressive symptoms, anxiety and insomnia was accompanied by higher levels of Facebook addiction. Depressive symptoms strongly correlate with many addictive behaviors, including problematic use of social networks (Griffiths, 2018).

According to Brailovskaia, Margraf and Kollner (2019) the average level of Facebook addiction was considerably higher in the hospitalized patients with mild depression than in those with moderate depression. Narcissistic personality and the time of using Facebook statistically significantly contributed to a higher level of Facebook addiction.

In 2011, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) brought into general use the term of ‘Facebook depression’, which refers to the situation when teenagers who spend a significant amount of time on Facebook show symptoms of depression (Shensa et al., 2017).

However, the study of Turkish patients undergoing hemodialysis revealed that having a Facebook account was related to lower severity of depressive symptoms (O’Keeffe and Clarke-Pearson, 2015), which suggests that using Facebook can help cope with the disease and improve mental well-being. This, however, only refers to normal utilization, and not to overusing social networks. There are also studies which did not reveal any connection between the severity of depressive symptoms and using social networks (Afsar, 2013; Jelenchick, Eickhoff and Moreno, 2013). Therefore, further research is needed to define the relationship between using Facebook and the severity of depressive symptoms more precisely.

It is important that the studies of others were carried out among adult men and women. However, own research was conducted in a group of adult women.

Demographic data had no statistically significant effect on the level of Facebook dependence. Our results also demonstrated that the level of Facebook addiction decreases with age among adult women. Błachnio et al. (2015) claim that sex, age, and daily time spent on the Internet have a statistically significant impact on the level of Facebook addiction―longer time on the Internet, younger age, and male sex were associated with higher levels of Facebook addiction.

Our analysis demonstrated statistically significant negative correlations between the DJGLS score and the scores on the IAT and the BFAS―lower loneliness went together with more severe Internet and Facebook addiction among adult women. Rębisz, Sikora and Smoleń-Rębisz (2016) reported a statistically significant bilateral positive correlation―the higher the level of Internet addiction, the stronger the feeling of loneliness, and vice versa.

Błachnio et al. (2018) analyzed the role of loneliness in developing Facebook addiction in five countries different in terms of industrial, economic, social, and technological context, namely Poland, Slovakia, Syria, Ecuador, and Malaysia among women and men. In Malaysia, the authors observed a negative correlation between loneliness and the level of Facebook addiction only in the oldest respondents―older people who felt alone rarely overused Facebook. Nevertheless, another study shows that Facebook can be a platform for social contacts for people of all ages (Quinn, 2018). What is more, the results confirmed that loneliness had an impact on the problematic use of Facebook in Malaysia: the respondents who had more friends were less likely to develop Facebook addiction. In Poland, those who felt lonely did not search for friends on Facebook. In Ecuador, a lower level of loneliness entailed a higher level of Facebook addiction. The respondents who obtained low scores for emotional and social loneliness had many friends in real life. Overuse of the Internet negatively correlated with social loneliness, and positively to emotional loneliness.

Addiction to internet and social media is an increasingly serious problem in society. Internet users are both young and older people, and their number is growing year on year. Ours research was the first large-scale study to measure behavioral addictions in the population of adult women, but this issue requires further research.

Both Internet and Facebook addiction and depressive symptoms according to the BDI were more common among the single women than among those having partners. The employed women had higher levels of these two addictions.
The only variable having an effect on Internet and Facebook addiction was age―the level of addiction was higher in younger women.
The feeling of loneliness was a psychological variable which correlated with Internet and Facebook addiction. Greater severity of depressive symptoms involved higher levels of Internet and Facebook addiction.

Funding sources

This research has been financed from the funds allocated to the Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin for maintaining the research potential, research, development work and related tasks to support the development of young scientists and participants of doctoral studies.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Table 1. The severity of depressive symptoms, the level of loneliness, the level of Internet and Facebook addiction with regard to marital status

	Married/Cohabiting n = 370	Single n = 186	p
BDI	4.0 (1.0 – 9.0)	6.0 (2.0 – 11.0)	< 0.05
DJGLS	34.1 ± 3.9	33.8 ± 3.9	0.44
IAT	29.0 (23.0 – 40.0)	36.0 (25.0 – 48.0)	< 0.001
BFAS	8.0 (6.0 – 11.0)	8.0 (6.0 – 12.0)	< 0.05

BDI―Beck Depression Inventory, DJGLS―De Jong Gierveld Lonelinees Scale, IAT―Internet Addiction Test, BFAS―Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale; mean ± standard deviation or median (lower quartile – upper quartile)

Table 2. The severity of depressive symptoms according to the BDI, a feeling of loneliness, and Internet and Facebook addiction in the studied women depending on their employment status

	Employed n = 496	Unemployed n = 60	p
BDI	4.0 (1.0 – 10.0)	6.5 (1.5 – 12.5)	0.20
DJGLS	34.1 ± 3.7	33.0 ± 5.0	0.09
IAT	32.0 (24.0 – 44.0)	24.5 (20.0 – 32.0)	< 0.001
BFAS	8.0 (6.0 – 12.0)	6.0 (6.0 – 7.5)	< 0.001

Andreassen CS, Torsheim T, Brunborg, GS & Pallesen S (2012) Development of a Facebook Addiction Scale. Psychological Reports 110: 501-517. doi:2466/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517.
Afsar B (2013) The relation between Internet and social media use and the demographic and clinical parameters, quality of life, depression, cognitive function and sleep quality in hemodialysis patients: Social media and hemodialysis. General Hospital Psychiatry 35:625–630. doi: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.05.001.
Bahrainian A, Khazaee A (2014) Internet Addiction among Students: The relation of self-esteem and depression. Bulletin of Environment. Pharmacology and Life Sciences 3:01-06.
Bhardwaj VK (2018) Level of Depression in Relation to Internet Addiction in Adolescents of Udhampur: Comparative Study. Indian J Health and Wellbeing 9:220–26.
Błachnio A, Przepiórka A, Wołońciej M, Bassam Mahmoud A, Holdoš J, Yafi E (2018) Loneliness, Friendship, and Facebook Intrusion. A Study in Poland, Slovakia, Syria, Malaysia, and Ecuador. Studia Psychologica 60:183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.21909/sp.2018.03.761.
Błachnio A, Przepiórka A, Pantic I (2015) Internet Use, Facebook Intrusion, and Depression: Results of a Cross-Sectional Study. European Psychiatry 30,:681–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.04.002.
Brailovskaia J, Margraf J, Kollner V (2019) Addicted to Facebook? Relationship between Facebook Addiction Disorder, duration of Facebook use and narcissism in an inpatient sample. Psychiatry Research 273:52–57. DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.016.
Charzyńska E, Góźdź J (2014) W sieci uzależnienia. Polska adaptacja Skali Uzależnienia od Facebooka (the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale) 42:163-185.
Davis RA (2001) A cognitive - behavioral model of pathological Internet use. Comput Human Behavior 17:187-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00041-8.
De Jong Gierveld J, Van Tilburg T, Dykstra P (2018) New Ways of Theorizing and Conducting Research in the Field of Loneliness and Social Isolation. The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships, second edition, Cambridge University Press (in press). Cambridge University Press,391-404. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316417867.031
Dong G, Lu Q, Zhou H, Zhao X (2011) Precursor or sequela: pathological disorders in people with Internet addiction disorder. PLOS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014703
Griffiths MD (2019) The association between Facebook addiction and depression: A pilot survey study among Bangladeshi students. Psychiatry Research 271:628 – 633. doi:1016/j.psychres.2018.12.039.
Grygiel P, Humenny G, Rębisz S, Świtaj P, Sikorska-Grygiel J (2012) Validating the Polish adaptation of the 11-item De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, European Journal of Psychological Assessment, Hogrefe Publishing 1-11. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000130.
Ha L, Yoo H, Cho L, Chin B, Shin D, Kim J (2006) Psychiatric comorbidity assessed in Korean children and adolescents who screen positive for internet addiction. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67:821-826. DOI:10.4088/JCP.v67n0517.
Hawi NS, Błachnio A, Przepiórka A (2015) Polish validation of the Internet Addiction Test. Computers in Human Behavior 48:548-553. DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.058.
Hou J, Jia S, Hu S, Fan R, Sun W, Sun T (2012) Reduced Striatal Dopamine Transporters in People with Internet Addiction Disorder. Jornal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/854524.
Janas-Kozik M, Krzystanek M (2016) Uzależnienie behawioralne. Skrypt dla studentów i lekarzy. Śląski Uniwersytet Medyczny w Katowicach.
Jelenchick LA, Eickhoff J.C, Moreno A (2013) “Facebook depression?” Social networking site use and depression in older adolescents. Jornal of Adolescent Health 52:128–130. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.008.
Kim K, Ryu E, Chon M (2006) Internet addiction in korean adolescents and its relation to depression and suicidal ideation; A questionnaire survey. International Jornal of Nursing Studies 43:185-192. DOI:1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.02.005.
Ko C, Tai-Ling L, Peng-Wei W. Cheng-Sheng Ch, Cheng-Fang Y, Ju-Yu Y (2014) The Exacerbation of Depression, Hostility, and Social Anxiety in the Course of Internet Addiction among Adolescents: A Prospective Study. Comprehensive Psychiatry 55: 1377–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.05.003.
Koc M, Gulyagci S (2013) Facebook Addiction Among Turkish College Students: The Role of Psychological Health, Demographic, and Usage Characteristics. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 16:279–84. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0249.
Lee HW, Choi JS, Shin YC, Lee JY, Jung HY, Kwon JS (2012). Impulsivity in internet addiction: a comparison with pathological gambling. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 15:373-377. DOI:1089/cyber.2012.0063.
Li G,Hou G, Yang D, Jian H, Wang W (2019) Relationship between anxiety, depression, sex, obesity, and internet addiction in Chinese adolescents: A short-term longitudinal study. Addictive Behaviors 99:421-427. DOI:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.12.009.
Lorenz RC, Krüger JK, Neumann B, Schott BH, Kaufmann C, Heinz A (2013) Cue reactivity and its inhibition in pathological computer game players. Addiction Biology 18:134-146. DOI:1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00491.x.
Niewiadomski K, Zawłocki I, Nieroba E (2015) Dorastanie w cyfrowym świecie – problem uzależnienia od komputera i interentu. ETI, 6:55-64.
Niemz K,Griffiths M, Banyard P (2005) Prevalence of pathological Internet use among university students and correlations with self-esteem, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), and disinhibition. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 8:562-570. DOI:1089/cpb.2005.8.562.
O’Keeffe GS, Clarke-Pearson K (2011) The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics 127:800-804. DOI:1542/peds.2011-0054.
Quinn K (2018) Cognitive Effects of Social Media Use: A Case of Older Adults. Social Media + Society https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2056305118787203.
Park HS, Kim SH, Bang SA, Yoon EJ, Cho SS, Kim SE (2010) Altered regional cerebral glucose metabolism in internet game overusers: a 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography study. CNS Spectrums,15:159-166. doi:10.1017/S1092852900027437.
Pużyński S, Wciórka J (2000) Klasyfikacja zaburzeń psychicznych i zaburzeń zachowania w ICD-10. Opisy kliniczne i wskazówki diagnostyczne. Uniwersyteckie Wydawnictwo Medyczne „Vesalius”, Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Kraków–Warszawa.
Rębisz S, Sikora I, Smoleń-Rębisz K (2016) Poczucie samotności a poziom uzależnienia od internetu wśród adolescentów. Edukacja - Technika – Informatyka 7:90–98.
Rømer TK, Joensson M, Lou HC, Møller A, Gross J, Kringelbach ML (2013) Altered paralimbic interaction in behavioral addiction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110:4744-4749. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302374110.
Sanders C, Field TF, Diego M, Caplan M (2000) The Relationship of internet use to depression and social isolation among adolescents. Adolescence 35:237-242. PMID:11019768.
Senormanci Ö,Saraçli Ö, Atasoy, N., Senormanci, G. & Koktürk, F. (2014) Relationship of Internet addiction with cognitive style, personality, and depression in university students. Comprehensive Psychiatry 55:1385-1390. DOI:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.04.025.
Shahla O. Allahyar N, Aminpoor H, Moafian F, Binti Md Nor, M, Griffiths MD (2016) Internet Addiction and Its Psychosocial Risks (Depression, Anxiety, Stress and Loneliness) among Iranian Adolescents and Young Adults: A Structural Equation Model in a Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 14:257–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-015-9628-0.
Shensa A, Escobar-Viera CG, Sidani JE, Bowman ND, Marshal MP, Primack BA (2017) Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally- representative study. Social Science & Medicine 182:150 – 157.
Weinstein A, Lejoyeux M (2010) Internet Addiction or Excessive Internet Use. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 36:277-283. DOI:10.3109/00952990.2010.491880.
Young KS, De Abreu CN (2011) Internet Addiction: A Handbook and Guide to Evaluation and Treatment. NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Young K (1998) Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyberpsychology Behavior 3:237-244. doi:10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237.
Zaffar M, Mahmood S, Saleem M, Zakaria E (2015) Facebook addiction: Relation with depression, anxiety, loneliness and academic performance of pakistani students. Sci Int (Lahore) 27:2469-2475.
Zawadzki B, Popiel A, Pragłowska E (2009) Charakterystyka psychometryczna polskiej adaptacji Kwestionariusza Depresji BDI-II Aarona T. Becka. Psychologia – Etiologia – Genetyka 19:71 – 95.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Psychosocial contributors to Internet and social media addiction among adult women

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Background

Material and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Declarations

Funding sources

Conflicts of Interest

Tables

References

Status:

Version 1