Determination of SSR-markers based genetic diversity with genetic parameters
Vernonia galamensis is a potential novel industrial crop containing naturally occurring epoxidized oil. However, its potential values are neglected, underestimated and underexploited. In addition, it is also exposed to genetic erosion. Therefore, assessment of genetic diversity with SSR markers generally in plants and particularly in V. galamensis is important for in-situ and ex-situ conservation and for efficient management of genetic diversity, for selection and improvement of the available genetic resource. The SSR marker-based study showed considerable genetic diversity. A total of 79 alleles with an average of 3.9 alleles were detected in this study, which was higher than the one reported by Ramalema et al. [13] in V. galamensis. The author also stated that less genetic diversity was observed among different Vernonia lines. According to Aikpokpodion et al. [32], a total of 29 bands were detected using five RAPD primers in genus Vernonia. Hence, the large number of alleles detected in the present study indicated the suitability of microsatellites for genetic linkage and QTL mapping of desirable traits applied to marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding programmes.
Polymorphic information content (PIC) is generally used for the characterization of marker polymorphism. In this study, the PIC values ranged between 0.50 (Vg-005) and 0.96 (Vg-002) with an average of 0.76, which was higher than that reported by Ramalema et al. [13] using RAPD markers in V.galamensis. Microsatellite markers such as Vg-002 and Vg-011 showed the highest polymorphism with 0.96 and 0.93, respectively. Aikpokpodion et al. [32] also indicated that PIC was ranged from 0.27 to 0.78 in V. galamensis accessions. This indicates that the majority of markers were able to distinguish differences among the studied V. galamensis accessions. For most of the loci, expected heterozygosity (He) values were higher than that of observed heterozygosity (Ho), revealing a high homozygosity at the given loci among the accessions. The diversity parameters showed high level of polymorphism among the 20 SSR markers, favoring the genetic variation within V. galamensis collection. In addition, East Showa and East Harerghe had the highest in effective alleles, heterozygosity, genetic diversity (Shannon diversity index) and fixation index. Hence, the two sites are the hotspot for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of V.galamensis.
Genetic Differentiation and Gene Flow
AMOVA demonstrated that V. galamensis had low variation among the population (11%). On the other hand, 67% of the total variation was attributed to genetic variability among individuals from different populations and 22% was due to variation among individuals within the same population. The result is similar to the previously reported in Vernonia species [33]. According to IPGRI and Cornell University [34], Fst value ranging from 0 to 0.05 is small in genetic differentiation, from 0.05 to 0.15 is moderate, and from 0.15 to 0.25 is large, and greater than 0.25 is very large genetic differentiation among populations in terms of allele frequencies. In line with this, the extent of genetic differentiation among the ten populations in terms of allele frequencies measured was moderate (Fst = 0.101), which implies the presence of moderate gene flow among populations in different regions.
Genetic distance is the measure of the allelic substitutions per locus that have occurred during the separate evolution of two populations. In this study, the largest genetic distance was observed between Borena and East Harerghe (0.57) populations, while the minimum genetic distance was observed between Borena and Konso (0.24). The overall magnitude of the pairwise population matrix of Nei genetic distance was relatively low [30].
Clustering and principal co-ordinates analysis among Vernonia galamensis accessions
In the present study, a dendrogram tree was constructed based on the 150 accessions of V. galamensis collected from different geographic and agro-ecological regions. V.galamensis accessions were clustered into four (4) major clusters based on the allelic frequency. Cluster 1 was comprised of 39 accessions, the second cluster characterized as the second major clustering, contained 42 accessions, the third cluster composed of 15 accessions, and the fourth groups consisted of the major clustering which comprised 54 accessions that were collected from different regions of origin. The cluster analysis revealed a poor clustering pattern was observed. Hence, accessions collected from different geographic regions/zones of origins were clustered together, since clusters did not follow a clear pattern of geographic origins, which may imply the presence of gene flow between and within populations/regions/collection sites. Similarly, Nwakanma et al. [33] reported that 49 Vernonia lines fingerprinted using RAPD markers were grouped into four major clusters with no clear-cut separation among accessions related to their origin. Aikpokpodion et al. [32] also reported that genus Vernonia grouped into four major clusters and showed the existence pattern of relationships between geographical origins and genetic diversity.
Principal components (PC) analysis explores complex data sets and transforms a number of associated variables into a smaller number of PCs. In the present investigation, the principal component analysis revealed that the majority of samples were placed at the center of a two-dimensional coordinate plane and roughly forms four groups with a total variation of 30.04%. This, in turn, agrees with the results of the NJ dendrogram in which there was no unique clustering among accessions from the same population/collection areas. The presence of gene flow between and within populations/collection areas, accompanied by the prevalence of inter-gene pool introgressions/hybrids between the gene pools of origin may be the most probable explanation behind the mixed clustering of accessions from different populations/collection areas together. Although UPGMA and PCoA analyses also showed a certain level of population clustering according to their geographical regions, the clustering pattern is weak, not clustered by their regions of origin.
Populations genetic structure in Vernonia galamensis
The structure analyses of 150 V. galamensis accessions using a Bayesian-model based approach with the highest ΔK Value, according to Gilbert et al. [31] and Evanno et al. [27] method. The samples from 10 collection zones were inferred into six (K = 6) structure outputs. The structure analysis revealed a close relationship (weak sub-division) of the population from 10 collection zones, and in general, six inferred groups (K = 6) with potential admixtures have been observed. It is interesting to indicate that all individual plants analyzed have alleles originated from the six clusters, which supports the presence of a strong gene flow that led to poor population differentiation. Hence, accessions collected from the same region of origin did not often group entirely together within a given major groups. There was a wide admixture in the structuring of V. galamensis populations, and population genetic structure study using SSR markers, which is the first report in V.galamensis. Most of the magnitudes identified for the SSR markers were important information for V. galamensis cultivation, breeding and genetic resource conservation.