The average calorie intake/person/day in both rural (2214 kcal) and urban (2169 kcal) India is less than the reference diet (Table 1). In both rural and urban areas, people in rich households (top deciles of monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE)) consume more than 3000 kcal/day i.e. 20% more than the reference diet. Their calorie intake/person/day is almost twice as high as their poorest counterparts (households in the bottom MPCE deciles) who consume only 1645 kcals/person/day (Table 1).
Why obesity is rising in India despite a lower average total calorie intake, as compared to the EAT-Lancet reference diet or even the ICMR recommendations[1], is a question beyond the scope of this paper. However, it may be related to the fact that the reference diet is developed for individuals with moderate-to-high levels of activity, whereas available studies estimate high levels of inactivity amongst Indians. A Lancet study looking at trends of insufficient physical activity between 2001-2016 suggested that 34% of Indians are not sufficiently engaged in physical activity (12). Similarly, a 2014 ICMR-INDIAB study indicates that more than half of all Indians are inactive. Lack of adequate physical activity is found to be more prevalent in urban areas and amongst females (13).
[1] The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommends per-person per-day calorie norms of 2400 kcal for rural areas and 2100 kcal for urban areas.
Table 1 Daily per capita caloric intake vis-à-vis EAT-Lancet reference diet
|
Total Caloric Intake in kcal (95% CI)
|
% difference
|
Urban India
|
2169 (2160, 2179)
|
-13%
|
Rural India
|
2214 (2202, 2225)
|
-12%
|
Highest MPCE – Urban
|
3079 (3010, 3149)
|
+23%
|
Highest MPCE – Rural
|
3174 (3024, 3323)
|
+27%
|
Lowest MPCE – Urban
|
1643 (1620, 1667)
|
-34%
|
Lowest MPCE – Rural
|
1645 (1616, 1674)
|
-34%
|
North India
|
2259 (2241, 2277)
|
-10%
|
South India
|
2171 (2156, 2186)
|
-13%
|
East India
|
2211 (2194, 2227)
|
-12%
|
West India
|
2124 (2099, 2149)
|
-15%
|
North East India
|
2158 (2119, 2198)
|
-14%
|
Central India
|
2198 (2170, 2226)
|
-12%
|
|
|
|
|
Values in kcal and as % difference with the reference diet (2503 kcal). 95% confidence interval in parenthesis. NSS-CES sampling weights were applied in calculations.
North: Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand Chandigarh
South: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Karnataka and Lakshadweep (Telangana included within data for Andhra Pradesh as NSS 68th round data was collected prior to the separation of the two states)
East: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal and A&N Island
West: Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, D&N Haveli and Daman&Diu
North East: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura
Central: Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh
Calorie Shares of different food groups
A healthy diet is diverse and has a balance in calorie shares of different food groups. Table 2A and 2B show that except for the richest households in urban areas, whole grains (cereals) account for a very high share of total calories consumed by most Indian households. Indians also consume more starchy vegetables, dairy foods, and palm oil as compared to the reference diet. Consumption of processed foods is also high in India, especially, among the richest urban households.
The average calorie intake from both plant and animal-based foods rich in protein is low in both rural and urban areas, across different income classes, and different parts of India. The same is true for the consumption of fruits and vegetables.
Interestingly, calorie shares of different food groups are similar between rural and urban households of similar per capita monthly expenditure levels. This is consistent with the results from a household survey in the state of Punjab that showed no significant rural-urban differences in diets (14).
Table 2A Daily per capita caloric intake (in kcal) comparison by food groups – across sectors and MPCE deciles
|
EAT-Lancet
|
Sectors
|
Highest MPCE Decile
|
Lowest MPCE Decile
|
Urban
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Rural
|
Urban
|
Rural
|
Whole grains1
|
811
(32%)
|
1029 (1023, 1034)
(47%)
|
1275 (1269, 1282)
(58%)
|
864 (831, 897)
(28%)
|
1347 (1292, 1403)
(42%)
|
1069 (1047, 1091)
(65%)
|
1159 (1132, 1185)
(70%)
|
Potato and Cassava
|
39
(2%)
|
51 (51, 52)
(2%)
|
63 (62, 64)
(3%)
|
56 (52, 60)
(2%)
|
58 (53, 62)
(2%)
|
56 (53, 59)
(3%)
|
57 (54, 61)
(3%)
|
Vegetables
|
78
(3%)
|
63 (62, 63)
(3%)
|
53 (53, 54)
(2%)
|
93 (89, 97)
(3%)
|
90 (83, 97)
(3%)
|
35 (34, 36)
(2%)
|
30 (29, 31)
(2%)
|
Fruits2
|
126
(5%)
|
46 (45, 47)
(2%)
|
28 (27, 28)
(1%)
|
122 (116, 129)
(4%)
|
81 (77, 85)
(3%)
|
9 (8, 10)
(1%)
|
5 (4, 6)
-
|
Dairy Foods
|
153
(6%)
|
184 (182, 186)
(8%)
|
145 (143, 148)
(7%)
|
362 (347, 378)
(12%)
|
366 (348, 383)
(12%)
|
49 (45, 52)
(3%)
|
27 (24, 30)
(2%)
|
Protein sources
|
726
(29%)
|
151 (149, 153)
(7%)
|
125 (124, 127)
(6%)
|
230 (219, 241)
(7%)
|
262 (246, 277)
(8%)
|
76 (74, 78)
(5%)
|
63 (61, 66)
(4%)
|
All Animal source proteins
|
151
(6%)
|
33 (33, 34)
(2%)
|
26 (25, 26)
(1%)
|
60 (54, 65)
(2%)
|
66 (60, 72)
(2%)
|
10 (9, 11)
(1%)
|
6 (5, 7)
-
|
Beef and lamb
|
15
(1%)
|
5 (5, 5)
-
|
3 (3, 3)
-
|
7 (6, 9)
-
|
11 (8, 14)
-
|
2 (1, 2)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
Pork
|
15
(1%)
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (-1, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
Poultry (Chicken & other)
|
62
(2%)
|
8 (8, 9)
-
|
6 (6, 6)
-
|
16 (14, 19)
(1%)
|
16 (13, 20)
(1%)
|
1 (1, 2)
-
|
1 (0, 1)
-
|
Eggs
|
19
(1%)
|
10 (10, 10)
-
|
6 (6, 6)
-
|
18 (16, 20)
(1%)
|
13 (12, 14)
-
|
3 (2, 4)
-
|
1 (1, 2)
-
|
Fish
|
40
(2%)
|
8 (8, 9)
-
|
9 (9, 9)
-
|
16 (14, 18)
(1%)
|
23 (21, 26)
(1%)
|
3 (2, 3)
-
|
2 (2, 3)
-
|
Legumes3
|
426
(17%)
|
95 (95, 96)
(4%)
|
84 (83, 85)
(4%)
|
122 (117, 127)
(4%)
|
143 (132, 153)
(5%)
|
61 (59, 63)
(4%)
|
55 (53, 58)
(4%)
|
Tree nuts4
|
149
(6%)
|
21 (21, 22)
(1%)
|
14 (14, 15)
(1%)
|
47 (43, 51)
(2%)
|
52 (48, 56)
(2%)
|
4 (3, 4)
-
|
1 (1, 2)
-
|
Added fats
|
450
(18%)
|
271 (269, 274)
(12%)
|
207 (204, 210)
(9%)
|
370 (352, 388)
(12%)
|
375 (316, 434)
(12%)
|
137 (133, 142)
(8%)
|
104 (100, 109)
(6%)
|
Palm Oil5
|
60
(2%)
|
154 (151, 156)
(7%)
|
94 (91, 97)
(4%)
|
222 (206, 238)
(7%)
|
201 (152, 250)
(6%)
|
54 (49, 60)
(3%)
|
38 (33, 43)
(2%)
|
Unsaturated Fats6
|
354
(14%)
|
101 (99, 104)
(5%)
|
107 (105, 109)
(5%)
|
104 (94, 115)
(3%)
|
147 (133, 161)
(5%)
|
82 (76, 87)
(5%)
|
65 (61, 70)
(4%)
|
Dairy Fats
|
0
(0%)
|
15 (15, 16)
(1%)
|
5 (4, 5)
-
|
42 (39, 46)
(1%)
|
26 (14, 38)
(1%)
|
0 (0, 1)
-
|
0 (-1, 0)
-
|
Lard
|
36
(1%)
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
All sweeteners
|
120
(5%)
|
114 (113, 115)
(5%)
|
102 (101, 104)
(5%)
|
139 (133, 145)
(5%)
|
202 (178, 227)
(6%)
|
65 (63, 68)
(4%)
|
47 (45, 49)
(3%)
|
Processed Food7
|
|
263 (256, 270)
(12%)
|
204 (199, 209)
(9%)
|
911 (821, 1001)
(30%)
|
407 (356, 458)
(13%)
|
131 (119, 142)
(8%)
|
136 (123, 149)
(8%)
|
Spices8
|
|
39 (39, 40)
(2%)
|
35 (34, 35)
(2%)
|
51 (49, 54)
(2%)
|
63 (58, 68)
(2%)
|
21 (21, 22)
(1%)
|
18 (17, 18)
(1%)
|
Total
|
2503
|
2169
|
2214
|
3079
|
3174
|
1643
|
1645
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mean values in kcal reported with 95% confidence intervals in parenthesis. Second row of each cell reports the mean value as a % of daily total calorie consumption. NSS-CES sampling weights were applied in calculations.
Lighter font represents subgroups within major food groups
MPCE (Monthly Per Capita Expenditure) signifies classification of population by economic level. Highest and lowest MPCE refers to the richest and poorest 5% of the population respectively.
1Whole grains consist of cereals like rice, wheat, wheat flour and other cereals like jowar, bajra, maize, barley, millets and ragi
2Fruits consists of all fruits and raisins, dates and other dried fruits
3Legumes consists of all pulses and groundnuts,
4Tree nuts consist of coconut, coconut green and coconut-copra (dried), cashew nuts, walnuts and other nuts
5Palm oil contains vanaspati, refined and edible oil
6Unsaturated oil contains mustard, groundnut and coconut
7Processed Food includes rice products, chira, khoi, lawa, muri, bread, bakery products, suji, maida, jowar products, besan, other gram products, cold and hot beverages, outside cooked meals including snacks, prepared sweets, namkeen, chips, pickles, sauce, jams, jelly, ice cream, biscuits, chocolates
8Spices include all spices like Ginger, garlic, jeera, dhania, turmeric, black pepper, dry chillies, tamarind, curry powder, oilseeds and other spices
Data not available in NSS on lard.
- Below 1%
Table 2B Daily per capita caloric intake (in kcal) comparison by food groups – across regions
|
EAT-Lancet
|
|
Regions
|
|
North
|
South
|
East
|
West
|
North East
|
Central
|
Whole grains1
|
811
(32%)
|
1218 (1211, 1226)
(54%)
|
1115 (1106, 1124)
(51%)
|
1346 (1335, 1358)
(61%)
|
983 (972, 994)
(46%)
|
1457 (1423, 1491)
(68%)
|
1302 (1286, 1318)
(59%)
|
Potato and Cassava
|
39
(2%)
|
76 (75, 77)
(3%)
|
14 (14, 15)
(1%)
|
106 (104, 107)
(5%)
|
33 (32, 34)
(2%)
|
53 (52, 55)
(2%)
|
45 (44, 46)
(2%)
|
Vegetables
|
78
(3%)
|
56 (55, 57)
(2%)
|
55 (54, 56)
(3%)
|
57 (56, 57)
(3%)
|
59 (57, 61)
(3%)
|
54 (53, 55)
(3%)
|
51 (50, 52)
(2%)
|
Fruits2
|
126
(5%)
|
30 (29, 31)
(1%)
|
45 (44, 46)
(2%)
|
24 (22, 25)
(1%)
|
42 (40, 43)
(2%)
|
31 (29, 34)
(1%)
|
22 (21, 24)
(1%)
|
Dairy Foods
|
153
(6%)
|
247 (242, 251)
(11%)
|
131 (129, 133)
(6%)
|
87 (84, 90)
(4%)
|
159 (155, 163)
(7%)
|
50 (47, 52)
(2%)
|
115 (109, 120)
(5%)
|
Protein sources
|
726
(29%)
|
99 (98, 100)
(4%)
|
203 (201, 206)
(9%)
|
107 (105, 109)
(5%)
|
150 (146, 153)
(7%)
|
123 (119, 126)
(6%)
|
113 (110, 115)
(5%)
|
All Animal source proteins
|
151
(6%)
|
11 (10, 11)
-
|
51 (49, 52)
(2%)
|
36 (35, 37)
(2%)
|
21 (20, 22)
(1%)
|
55 (54, 57)
(3%)
|
11 (10, 12)
(1%)
|
Beef and lamb
|
15
(1%)
|
3 (3, 3)
-
|
5 (5, 6)
-
|
3 (3, 4)
-
|
4 (3, 4)
-
|
5 (5, 6)
-
|
1 (1, 1)
-
|
Pork
|
15
(1%)
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
5 (5, 5)
-
|
0 (0, 0)
-
|
Poultry (Chicken & other)
|
62
(2%)
|
2 (2, 2)
-
|
14 (14, 15)
(1%)
|
6 (6, 7)
-
|
6 (5, 7)
-
|
8 (7, 9)
-
|
4 (4, 4)
-
|
Eggs
|
19
(1%)
|
3 (3, 4)
-
|
13 (13, 14)
(1%)
|
8 (8, 8)
-
|
6 (6, 6)
-
|
12 (12, 13)
(1%)
|
3 (2, 3)
-
|
Fish
|
40
(2%)
|
1 (1, 1)
-
|
16 (15, 16)
(1%)
|
16 (16, 17)
(1%)
|
4 (3, 4)
-
|
22 (22, 23)
(1%)
|
2 (2, 2)
-
|
Legumes3
|
426
(17%)
|
85 (84, 86)
(4%)
|
101 (99, 102)
(5%)
|
68 (66, 70)
(3%)
|
106 (103, 108)
(5%)
|
64 (62, 67)
(3%)
|
91 (89, 93)
(4%)
|
Tree nuts4
|
149
(6%)
|
2 (2, 3)
-
|
51 (50, 52)
(2%)
|
3 (3, 3)
-
|
22 (21, 23)
(1%)
|
2 (2, 3)
-
|
10 (9, 11)
-
|
Added fats
|
450
(18%)
|
225 (218, 231)
(10%)
|
218 (215, 222)
(10%)
|
183 (180, 186)
(8%)
|
325 (316, 333)
(15%)
|
156 (153, 160)
(7%)
|
212 (206, 217)
(10%)
|
Palm Oil5
|
60
(2%)
|
61 (56, 65)
(3%)
|
161 (158, 164)
(7%)
|
32 (30, 33)
(1%)
|
257 (247, 266)
(12%)
|
16 (15, 18)
(1%)
|
162 (157, 168)
(7%)
|
Unsaturated Fats6
|
354
(14%)
|
147 (145, 149)
(7%)
|
54 (51, 58)
(2%)
|
149 (147, 152)
(7%)
|
56 (52, 61)
(3%)
|
138 (135, 141)
(6%)
|
41 (38, 44)
(2%)
|
Dairy Fats
|
0
(0%)
|
16 (15, 18)
(1%)
|
2 (2, 2)
-
|
1 (1, 1)
-
|
11 (10, 12)
(1%)
|
1 (1, 1)
-
|
8 (7, 8)
-
|
Lard
|
36
(1%)
|
-
|
-
|
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
All sweeteners
|
120
(5%)
|
133 (130, 137)
(6%)
|
92 (91, 93)
(4%)
|
64 (63, 65)
(3%)
|
137 (134, 140)
(6%)
|
65 (64, 67)
(3%)
|
112 (109, 115)
(5%)
|
Processed Food7
|
|
172 (166, 177)
(8%)
|
283 (272, 294)
(13%)
|
228 (221, 235)
(10%)
|
235 (225, 245)
(11%)
|
176 (166, 186)
(8%)
|
212 (193, 231)
(10%)
|
Spices8
|
|
29 (29, 30)
(1%)
|
55 (54, 56)
(3%)
|
29 (28, 29)
(1%)
|
39 (38, 40)
(2%)
|
20 (20, 21)
(1%)
|
33 (32, 33)
(2%)
|
Total
|
2503
|
2259
|
2171
|
2211
|
2124
|
2158
|
2198
|
Mean values in kcal reported with 95% confidence intervals in parenthesis. Second row of each cell reports the mean value as a % of daily total calorie consumption. NSS-CES sampling weights were applied in calculations.
Lighter font represents subgroups within major food groups
MPCE (Monthly Per Capita Expenditure) signifies classification of population by economic level. Highest and lowest MPCE refers to the richest and poorest 5% of the population respectively.
1Whole grains consist of cereals like rice, wheat, wheat flour and other cereals like jowar, bajra, maize, barley, millets and ragi
2Fruits consists of all fruits and raisins, dates and other dried fruits
3Legumes consists of all pulses and groundnuts,
4Tree nuts consist of coconut, coconut green and coconut-copra (dried), cashew nuts, walnuts and other nuts
5Palm oil contains vanaspati, refined and edible oil
6Unsaturated oil contains mustard, groundnut and coconut oil
7Processed Food includes rice products, chira, khoi, lawa, muri, bread, bakery products, suji, maida, jowar products, besan, other gram products, cold and hot beverages, outside cooked meals including snacks, prepared sweets, namkeen, chips, pickles, sauce, jams, jelly, ice cream, biscuits, chocolates
8Spices include all spices like Ginger, garlic, jeera, dhania, turmeric, black pepper, dry chillies, tamarind, curry powder, oilseeds and other spices
Data not available in NSS on lard
- Below 1%
The poorest 5% of the population in India consumes less than the suggested calories for all food groups except whole grains, tubers and starchy vegetables, and processed food. There is little rural-urban variation within this group.
Table 3 Difference in calories consumed in India and recommended by the EAT-Lancet reference diet for Whole grains and Tubers and starchy vegetables
Total caloric intake (kcal)
|
Whole grains
|
Tubers and starchy vegetables
|
Urban India
|
218 (212, 223)
|
12 (12, 13)
|
Rural India
|
464 (458, 471)
|
24 (23, 25)
|
Highest MPCE -Urban
|
53 (20, 86)
|
17 (13, 21)
|
Highest MPCE -Rural
|
536 (481, 592)
|
19 (14, 23)
|
Lowest MPCE- Urban
|
258 (236, 280)
|
17 (14, 20)
|
Lowest MPCE -Rural
|
348 (321, 374)
|
18 (15, 22)
|
North India
|
407 (400, 415)
|
37 (36, 38)
|
South India
|
304 (295, 313)
|
-25 (-25, -24)
|
East India
|
535 (524, 547)
|
67 (65, 68)
|
West India
|
172 (161, 183)
|
-6 (-7, -5)
|
North East India
|
646 (612, 680)
|
14 (13, 16)
|
Central India
|
491 (475, 507)
|
6 (5, 7)
|
Values in kcal. 95% confidence interval in parenthesis. NSS-CES sampling weights were applied in calculations.
Whole grains consist of cereals like rice, wheat, wheat flour and other cereals like jowar, bajra, maize, barley, millets and ragi
Cereals and Starchy Vegetables: EAT-Lancet Commission recommends that about one-third (811 kcals) of the total daily calorie intake should come from whole grains. The average Indian households get almost half (47%) of their total calories from whole grains and the calorie share of cereals is as high as 70% for the poorest rural households (Table 2A, 2B and Table 3).
Protein sources: When compared to the reference diet, low caloric intake from protein sources (both plant and animal-based) is common across all sectors, regions, and income groups of India (Tables 2A, 2B, and 3 and Figures 1 and 2). The deficit is more in rural areas where only 6% of the total caloric intake comes from protein sources compared to 29% in the EAT-Lancet diet (Table 2A).
Even for the richest 5% of India’s population, calories from protein sources is less than half of the 726 kcal in the reference diet. The poorest Indians get below 130 kcal per day (less than 20% of the recommendation) from protein sources. Among different regions of India, people in the North-east consume the lowest quantities of legumes (Fig. 1 and Table 4).
The rich in India get fewer calories from cereals and more calories from fruits, vegetables, animal source proteins, and fats compared to the poor. (Tables 2A and 2B).
Table 4 Difference in calories consumed in India and proposed by EAT-Lancet reference diet for Legumes and Tree Nuts
Total caloric intake (kcal)
|
Legumes
|
Tree nuts
|
Urban India
|
-331 (-331, -330)
|
-128 (-128, -127)
|
Rural India
|
-342 (-343, -341)
|
-135 (-135, -134)
|
Highest MPCE -Urban
|
-304 (-309, -299)
|
-102 (-106, -98)
|
Highest MPCE -Rural
|
-283 (-294, -273)
|
-97 (-101, -93)
|
Lowest MPCE- Urban
|
-365 (-367, -363)
|
-145 (-146, -145)
|
Lowest MPCE -Rural
|
-371 (-373, -368)
|
-148 (-148, -147)
|
North India
|
-341 (-342, -340)
|
-147 (-147, -146)
|
South India
|
-325 (-327, -324)
|
-98 (-99, -97)
|
East India
|
-358 (-360, -356)
|
-146 (-146, -146)
|
West India
|
-320 (-323, -318)
|
-127 (-128, -126)
|
North East India
|
-362 (-364, -359)
|
-147 (-147, -146)
|
Central India
|
-335 (-337, -333)
|
-139 (-140, -138)
|
Values in kcal. 95% confidence interval in parenthesis. NSS-CES sampling weights were applied in calculations.
Legumes consists of all pulses and groundnuts,
Tree nuts consists of coconut, coconut-green, coconut-dried, cashew nuts, walnuts and other nuts
The EAT-Lancet reference diet advocates consumption of only “low to moderate” quantities of seafood and poultry and “no to low” amounts of red meat or processed meat. Animal-source proteins constitute 6% of the total caloric intake in the reference diet. Indian diets, across different types of households, have a lower share of calories from animal-based foods. Consumption of animal-based foods is relatively higher in South India and the North-Eastern region. The richest households in all parts of India consume more than average quantities (or calories) of meat. (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). Consumption of red meat (beef, lamb and pork) is low in India (Table 2A, 2B and Fig.2).
Fruits and Vegetables: A diverse diet is a healthy diet (15)(16). The reference diet is largely plant-based with fruits and vegetables accounting for 204 kcal (8%) of the daily calorie intake. Most Indians, except the richest ones in urban areas, do not consume enough fruits. The average consumption of calories from fruits is less than 40% of what EAT-Lancet recommends (Table 2A, 2B and Fig. 3). The difference in caloric intake from vegetables is smaller than what it is for fruits, but under-consumption of vegetables is also common across all but the richest households in rural and urban areas (Fig. 3).
Oils and fats: Indians get fewer calories from added fats than what is recommended in the reference diet (Table 2A and 2B). This is despite an increase of 3.5% in the consumption of oils and fats between 1993-94 and 2011-12 in both rural and urban areas as per NSS reports. Fig. 4 shows that Indians, in general, consume less of the healthier oils & fats and more of the unhealthier saturated fats like palm oil.
Palm oil is high in unhealthy saturated fat and is the chief ingredient of the widely consumed vanaspati (partially hydrogenated vegetable oil) in India.
The consumption of vanaspati is known to have risen by 51% between 1993-94 and 2011-12 and it is widely used for cooking at home, in restaurants, by street vendors, and in the preparation of processed foods (17). Fig.4 also shows that the highest caloric consumption of palm oil is among the highest income groups. Among different parts of India, consumption is highest in western India.
It should be noted that the consumption of fat in India might be higher than reflected in this data as the fat content of packaged food and meals consumed outside of the home is not accounted for.
Processed Food: EAT-Lancet commission recommends the consumption of only small amounts of processed food. Processed food is not even a separate food group in the reference diet. We report the consumption of processed food as a separate group in this paper because of its high and rising consumption in India. In the 68th round of NSS-CES, bread, bakery products, suji (semolina), maida (refined wheat flour), cold and hot beverages, outside cooked meals including snacks, prepared sweets, savouries (namkeens), chips, pickles, sauce, jams, jelly, ice cream, biscuits, chocolates have been included in the category of processed food along with meals consumed outside of the home. These types of foods, normally high in sugar, salt, saturated fats, and processed flour, are considered unhealthy and often linked to obesity/overweight and NCDs (18) (2) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23).
Processed food accounts for nearly 10% of the average total caloric intake in both rural and urban India (Table 2A, 2B and Fig. 5). Urban households in the highest income group consume almost 30% of their total daily calories from processed food (Fig. 5). Among different regions of India, the calorie share of processed food is highest in Southern Indian and the lowest in North-Eastern and Northern India (Table 2).
Spices like ginger, garlic, coriander powder (dhania) and turmeric constitute 2% of total caloric consumption in rural and urban India.