3.1 Stakeholder institutions in charge of designing and implementing ASF safety standards
Although several government institutions were identified as key in designing and enforcing of ASF safety standards, the core mandate of food control lies with Uganda National Bureau of standards in the country (Table 1). The UNBS is expected to transparently ensure the safety and quality of food, and prevent fraudulent practices thereby enhancing consumer protection, promotion of food trade and industry locally and internationally. The UNBS, basing on the guiding principles of the Codex Alimentarius Commision operates at the interface of government ministries (MAAIF, MOH, Ministry of Trade and Industry) and all other food chain actors (consumers, transporters, producers, marketers). Although the UNBS is a considerably independent agency with most of stipulated structures in place, it is grappling with financial and staffing challenges that make it difficult to coordinate with other key stakeholder institutions in implementing of food control activities. The participants observed that the ASFs consuming public was not being provided with facts that should enable them to make informed choices on the appropriate food products. It was also observed that there was a need for UNBS to initiate and promote a platform for involvement of all ASFs value chain actors in formulation and enforcement of food control policies. ‘Open and transparent decision-making processes need to be encouraged to enhance the vigilance of the public to willingly comply to food control standards and promote ASF safety’, said a participant.
Since the UNBS has the statutory authority to oversee formulation and review of standards, responsibilities include the identification of legislative needs; monitoring the efficiency and effectiveness of law enforcement and food surveillance activities; commissioning research; etc;
In order for UNBS to successfully undertake its statutory roles (coordination, monitoring and auditing), it should closely work with the associated government ministries and all the ASFs actor institutions in implementing food control activities (food analysis, inspection, enforcement, and sensitization).
Table 1
Institutions involved in designing and implementation of ASF safety standards
Institution | Role | ASF Component |
Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) | Formulation and enforcement of standards at abattoirs and meat factories and supermarkets. Certification of packaged ASFs. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) | Formulation, review and enforcement of ASF standards. It regulates use of veterinary drugs, feeds and other livestock farm inputs, provides extension services such as training of farmers and capacity building of extension staff as well as guiding standards development processes. It controls and manages epidemics and disasters, and support the control of sporadic and endemic diseases, pests and vectors. It is also responsible for inspection and certification of livestock and its products for the local market and export. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Ministry of Trade | Involved in formulation of policies and regulations | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Ministry of Health (MOH) | Involved in enforcement of standards through its public health arm of inspection of premises of sale ASFs as well as the products themselves. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Ministry of water and environment | Through the National Environment authority enforces standards by providing clearance for establishment of facilities such as farms, abattoirs, food processing industries among others. This is done to ensure that establishment of these facilities does not compromise the ecosystem. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Academic institutions | Training institutions such as Makerere University conduct research on feeds, animal diseases, animal breeds, which helps inform the standard formulating processes. These institutions provide relevant training to students (e.g., veterinary doctors, food safety specialists) and also offer trainings and consultancy services to livestock farmers and business entrepreneurs. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Research institutions | The examples include: Uganda Industrial Research Institute (UIRI), National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), National genetic resources and data bank (NAGRICDB). These carry out research and innovations that provide evidence to support formulation of standards. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
ASF actor groups | These ASFs value chain actors are the main end users of the standards, although they are not well organized. They are expected to provide awareness, play mobilisation roles about the quality requirement of the animal source foods. These associations include farmers’ associations (dairy farmers network), traders’ associations, transporters’ associations (Dairy transporters association). Uganda Fish Processors and Exporters Association(UFPEA), Walimi Fish Farmers Cooperative Society (WAFICOS), L. Victoria Fishers association | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
Dairy development authority (DDA) | The agency regulates quality and transportation of milk, certification of transport and quality, quality monitoring, and capacity building. | Milk products |
Security agencies | Uganda Peoples Defense Force (UPDF) and Uganda Police (UP) have units that work with MAAIF to enforce adherence to the standards. Examples are the animal quarantine enforcement and fisheries protective unit which enforces good fishing practices. | Meat, milk, poultry and fish |
3.2 Stakeholders’ compliance to standards in the animal source foods value chain
Safe food is generally defined as food free of hazards to human health. Safety can be seen as an aspect of food quality, which encompasses all attributes of food (such as freshness, nutritive value, taste, origin) that influence its value to consumers.
Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances, causes more than 200 diseases for example typhoid, Bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, among others. Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of contaminated food, causing 550 million people to fall ill and 230 000 deaths every year (World Health Organization, 2020).
The Codex Alimentarius international food standards, guidelines and codes of practice contribute to the safety, quality and fairness of international food trade. This also ensures the protection of the consumers health. Veterinary drugs, pesticides, food additives and other contaminants are some of the issues discussed in Codex meetings. Once the Codex standards are fulfilled, it removes the barriers to trade by resolving trade disputes through World Trade Organization.
In Uganda national bureau standards has documented standards for different animal products (UNBS), for example;
US codex stan 89-1981 (revised in 2015). This applies to products designated as "luncheon meat" which have been packed in any suitable packaging material.
US 737:2007. This standard specifies requirements for the production of packaged meat products (processed or manufactured) processed in an established meat processing factory.
US CAC/RCP 15:1976. This Code of Hygienic Practice for eggs and egg products is intended to provide guidance for the safe production of eggs and egg products
US 806:2009. This standard prescribes specifications for the following poultry feeds: broiler starter feed, broilers finishing feed, chick and duck feed, poultry grower feed, turkey starter feed, layer feed and breeders feed.
3.2.1 At the farm.
In order to ensure that ASFs produced for human consumption is safe from hazards, farmers are expected to play a crucial role of preventing livestock and its products from getting contaminated with biological (bacteria, viruses and fungi), chemical (antibiotics, inorganic compounds) and physical (adulterations) agents at production level. It was observed in this study that previously, there have been no deliberate efforts envisaged to support farmers to implement safe food production. This is however expected to change with the government’s current move of promoting commercialized production through modernization of agriculture programs to improve livelihoods and boost economy.
‘Most of the farmers have been keeping livestock on subsistence basis, producing mainly for consumption at home and within the local community setting. Due to the increasing demand for ASFs, livestock farming is becoming highly commercialized, with farmers aiming to produce on large scale to address the demand locally and internationally.’
Increasing investment in livestock sector to boost the economic returns is expected to act as an incentive that will compel the farmers and the government to ensure compliance to food control practices so as to maximize profits locally and from exports.
During the discussions, case scenarios of noncompliance to food control practices were noted and solutions proposed as summarised below:
Sale of poor quality livestock; Farmers tend to sell off livestock that are unthrifty, have failed to recover following treatment and are no longer productive to avoid making losses. This poses public health risks due to zoonoses. ‘Whenever I go to my village, I avoid buying cattle meat because they will only slaughter those that are sick. It is safer to buy goat or sheep meat instead because they are usually slaughtered when healthy due to their body sizes.’ Explained a participant.
Sale of adulterated livestock products; Farmers harvest ASFs (milk, eggs, fish and meat) without strictly following drug withdrawal periods after treating their animals, exposing consumers to antimicrobial resistance. Poultry farmers deliberately add antibiotics to feeds and water as growth promoters without considering the health implications to consumers. ‘There is no way a farmer can raise exotic chicken without routinely administering to them drugs to boost their immunity. It is even worse with broilers’ Kampala FGD participant.
Some farmers who sell milk add water to increase quantity. ‘Door to door milk suppliers have a habit of adding water to milk, especially during dry season when feeds are scarce to meet the demand of their clients.’ said a Kampala FGD participant.
‘Scenarios of milk adulteration are being curbed by testing of milk at bulking centres using lactometers. Private companies that buy milk are so strict so that if the milk collected at the centres is tested and detected to have water, it will be rejected and becomes a loss to all farmers who would have bulked their milk at that centre. ‘Mbarara FGD participant.
Use of poor quality feeds and water; Animals are given inadequate feeds and water that are of poor quality, thereby affecting their health and the quality of their products. ‘Feeds should meet the nutritional needs of animals, quality water supplies should be provided, regularly checked and maintained. Control of storage conditions of feed and traceability of feedstuffs brought to the farm should be emphasized to prevent the risk of aflatoxicosis. ’Declared participant in Mbarara.
Unhygienic farm environment; This leads to contamination of feeds and water, making livestock sick. Products such as milk and eggs also directly get contaminated during the process of harvest and storage.
So as to produce ASFs fit for human consumption, farmers need to be advised on appropriate farm biosecurity measures aimed at preventing disease occurrence hence raising healthy livestock that meet requirements for both local and international market.
3.2.2 Transportation of animals and animal products.
During transportation, there are recommended conditions required for transportation of live animals and their products like milk, carcases and eggs. These conditions include but not limited to temperatures and animal welfare to ensure safety and adequate nutrition content of the products.
‘All animals destined for slaughter should be clean, healthy and fit to travel and have not had recent contact with diseased stock or infectious material and the records of animals and animal products leaving the farm as well as their destination and date of dispatch should be kept. In addition, treatment withdrawal periods should be observed before animals are slaughtered.
Recommended storage conditions should be observed to maintain the quality of the products especially for milk and eggs.’ Kampala FGD participant.
Transportation should be done well to avoid soiling and cross-contamination with faecal material, ensure that no new hazards are introduced during transport, and records to enable animal identification should be kept as well. Restraint and handling of animals prior to loading is expected to be done in a safe and humane manner. Although there are standards that ought to guide handling and transportation of livestock and livestock products (US733), these are ignored. It was reported by participants that live animals were often packed and poorly transported in unspecialized means that included trucks, pickups, taxis, bicycles and motorcycles (bodaboda). ‘It is such a terrible scene at the livestock markets if you are to witness how the transporters beat up and overload animals in trucks. These people are so cruel to these animals, probably knowing that they are headed for slaughter anyway.’ Kampala FGD participant.
‘Quite often, taxis from Eastern routes come to Kampala loaded with poultry on their racks. Sometimes these birds die in transit and are likely to be roasted chicken pieces sold cheaply on the streets.’ Kampala participant.
The transportation of milk, eggs and fish products for longer distances is done more carefully to avoid spoilage before reaching market destination. This is usually done using refrigerated vehicles (milk and fish) and crates/ boxes (eggs). The only challenge in this case is maintaining cleanness of these vehicles, containers and boxes.
There is also the challenge of using inappropriate containers (polythene bags, jerrycans) instead of using milk cans when transporting milk from the farms to collection centres or nearby sale outlets.
Transport vehicles for live animals and ASF products, containers and boxes should be designed for specific animal species while ensuring adequate spacing, ventilation and cleanness maintenance.
3.2.3 Processing of ASFs.
During processing, good hygiene practices are paramount in both slaughter houses and factories to prevent contamination of the products. In addition, products are supposed to be packaged in food grade materials and the handlers are supposed to undergo health assessment and issued with certificates to handle animal products. Products should be well packaged and labelled with required information like nutrition content, storage and preparation conditions, manufacture and expiry date among others. The following are the key quotes of participants regarding the status of ASFs processing;
“Most of the abattoirs are privately owned, so they should be able to improve the standards of the abattoirs. However, constructing and renovating an abattoir to a recommended standard is quite expensive which the private owners are definitely not able raise. Could it be that the meat inspectors don’t do their work? It’s urged that it’s the responsibility of the owners to seek help of the technical people. The government has tried to renovate its abattoirs for example the Uganda meat industry has been closed since last year to enable renovations, this however may not be replicated in the privately owned settings. ” said a participant in Mbarara.
‘Bombo meat abattoir is the only one certified by ISO in Uganda but most businessmen/farmers prefer other slaughter houses since Bombo charges (approximately 100,000/= per cow slaughtered) are higher than the uncertified abattoirs. “Kampala participant.
3.2.4 Distribution, retail and home preparation.
This should be done under proper conditions considering temperature, moisture, hygiene and also proper handling during loading and offloading of the products. At retail shops and home, proper handling and storage conditions need to be considered to prevent contamination of the products.
The participants agreed that regulations and laws should be put in place to implicate milk sellers including small outlets and door to door vendors who use plastic containers or jerrycans to sell milk.
“Public sensitization targeting both vendors and consumers of unpackaged milk about qualities of safe and good milk should be done. They can also be advised to shun away from buying milk carried in plastic containers”, noted a participant in Mbarara.
3.2.4 Fish sector specific food control challenges.
Standards for food control in the fish sector exist and they include; Fish net standards for different fish sizes, Code of practice for fish and fish products (codex), Code of Practice for fish handling and processing fresh fish, boat registration and tracking policy. The key quotes on status of fishing in Uganda are summarised below;
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In the 1990’s fishing was done using chemicals and this led to fish ban on the international market and also compromised the safety of the public, Landing sites never had cooling facilities, toilets and other sanitary facilities, Fish net sizes were not regulated resulting in low fish stock in the water bodies especially L. Victoria.
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Now, there is regulation such as registration of boat owners, breeding grounds are protected, army on lakes and landing sites enforcing regulations in place, banning fish nets of wrong sizes. There is an increase in demand for fish, most especially fish maw (swim bladder) due to its high demand for medicinal purposes for example manufacturing of sutures.
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Fish farming has been introduced and is being popularized to meet the increase in demand hence relieving the over-fishing pressure on the natural water sources.
Case scenarios of poor food safety control identified included;
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Use of chemicals to trap fish
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Poor sanitation at landing site; no or inadequate toilets, bad fishing techniques like typhooning and use of microfilament nets.
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Poor handling practices for example smoking of fish was never done using the recommended wood (hard wood), drying mukene was done on the ground or it would be mixed with sand to increase weight, cold storage facilities were lacking at the landing sites.
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Fish are sometimes captured, their swim bladder removed and the fish are then dumped back into the lake, depleting the stock.
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High-handedness of security personnel (UPDF marines) during enforcement of fishing guidelines on natural water bodies. Some stakeholders emphasized that “UPDF is on the lake for selfish reasons that is trade of the expensive and highly demanded swim bladder. ‘UPDF has supported the regulations to implement rules however, stakeholders believe that there is need to strengthen and empower the agriculture police to replace UPDF on L. Victoria.’
3.4 Certification and inspection
Assessment of instruments of certification of quality of ASFs such as possession a valid public health certificate, meat inspection seal and a valid operating license was conducted using a structured questionnaire in selected meat sale outlets in Kampala and Mbarara districts.
It was generally observed that more than 55% of the meat sale outlets surveyed had in place the instruments of certification and inspection. Most of the outlets sold meat that had a stamp (80.0%Kampala, 68%Mbarara) which indicates that it was inspected by both public health and veterinary officials and was safe for consumption. Majority of the ASF handlers had public health certificates (67% Kampala, 60% Mbarara). Up to 60% (Kampala) and 58% (Mbarara) of the meat outlets had valid operating licences from the appropriate authorities. This implies that the other outlets 40% (Kampala) and 42% (Mbarara) were illegally operating without the required licences. Frequency of use of instruments of certification and inspection was higher in Kampala compared to Mbarara district as shown in figure 2.
Certification is a process of making an official statement confirming the truth of inspection has been carried out accurately, satisfactorily, considering evidence of compliance to required food control standards.
In Uganda, inspection & certification is carried out by the division of Veterinary Regulation & Enforcement in the department of animal health in the Directorate of Animal Resources. The department works together with the Division of Veterinary Public Health in department of Animal Production. These departments carryout inspection & certification of all exports of animals, animal products, by-products and inputs, approves establishments for production and slaughter & processing of animals & products, undertakes import risk analysis for importation of animals, animal products and inputs, disease surveillance among others.
Inspection is carried out on; live domestic animals, animal products (meat, milk, eggs, chicken, hides & skins), feeds & feed additives, semen, ova, embryos, wild animals, wild animal products (skins, skull, teeth), equipment and devices, vessels for carrying animals, premises (production & processing) among others. These departments work jointly with other stakeholders for example; MOH (Public health), UWA (wild animals/products), UNBS (foods), NAGRC & DB (semen, ova), DDA (milk) among others.