In recent times, consumption frequency and measurement of dietary intake of spices is gaining much significance due to various phytochemicals and presence of antioxidant potential in spices that have been recognized to have health-promoting benefits and protective role against chronic diseases.
Consumption frequency of spices among urban and rural households
The consumption frequency of spices among urban and rural households are shown in Table 1. A spice intake survey among urban households showed that all the urban households consumed red chilli powder and turmeric powder daily. Spices consumed by more than 90 % of urban households were cumin seeds (99 %), green cardamom (94 %), asafoetida, fennel seeds and carom seeds, black pepper (93 % each) and coriander seeds (91 %). Consumption frequency of dill, saffron, mace, nigella seeds, nutmeg, mace and star anise were found to be lower, less than 50 % of urban households consumed these spices. The least consumed spice was star anise as 30 % of urban households preferred to consume this on an occasional basis. Contrarily among rural households, red chilli powder and turmeric powder were consumed by all the households and only 13 percent of households consumed star anise which was least consumed among all 25 spices studied. Among rural households, the top six most frequently consumed spices (higher category) were red chilli powder and turmeric powder consumed on daily basis by households followed by cumin seeds (97 percent), carom seeds (91 %), black pepper (91 %), asafoetida (90 %). Further, intermediate spice consumption frequency ranged between 89–63 % of households consuming fennel seeds, coriander seeds, green cardamom, dry mango powder, mustard seeds, fenugreek seeds, pomegranate seeds, black salt, cinnamon and cloves. Spices consumed on a weekly or on occasional basis were gooseberry powder, bay leaf, black cardamom, saffron, nutmeg, mace, nigella seeds, dill and star anise contributing less than 50 % of rural households consuming these spices.
Mean consumption frequency score among households
The mean consumption frequency score of major spices has been depicted in Table 2. The maximum mean consumption frequency score among urban and rural households was observed for red chilli powder (5.00) and turmeric powder (5.00). The lowest scores were obtained by star anise 0.45 and 0.14 among urban and rural households, respectively. The consumption frequency score revealed that spice consumption was significantly (p<0.01) higher among urban households for cumin seeds, asafoetida, black pepper, black salt, gooseberry powder, mustard seeds, fenugreek seeds, pomegranate seeds, dill, mace, nigella, saffron, bay leaf, black cardamom, nutmeg and star anise when compared to rural households. The mean frequency score of carom seeds, green cardamom, fennel seeds, coriander seeds, dry mango powder and clove showed non-significant difference between the urban and rural households.
Usage form of spices by rural and urban households
The form of spices used among households is presented in the Table 3. Results depicted that the spices namely nigella seeds, mace, nutmeg, fennel seeds, star anise and green cardamom were used in their unroasted form by the majority of urban and rural households. A significant difference (p<0.05) was found in using a different form of spices namely green cardamom, black pepper, asafoetida, cinnamon, fenugreek seeds, coriander seeds, bay leaf, clove, carom seeds and black cardamom among urban and rural households. The overall result, it showed that a maximum of 76 % of urban and 72 % of rural households preferred to use the unroasted form of spices followed by 19 % of urban and 21 % of rural households using roasted form for spices and remaining using both roasted and unroasted form of spices.
Spice intake by adult women among households
Spice intake among adult women based on the portion size and quantity of individual spice consumed from all dishes and foods expressed as mean, median, 90th percentile levels and ranges are presented in Table 4. The mean intakes among urban women above 0.18 g/portion size were observed for red chilli powder, turmeric powder, black salt, fennel seeds, cumin seeds, asafoetida, black pepper, green cardamom and for red chilli powder, turmeric powder, cumin seeds, asafoetida, black pepper, carom seeds, fennel seeds, green cardamom, and mustard seeds were observed among rural women. The highest mean intake and range was observed for red chilli powder (3.19 g with range 0.35-5.23 g, respectively) for urban women and (2.41 g with range 0.25-3.75 g, respectively) for rural women. Mean turmeric powder intake among urban and rural households was 2.98 and 2.80 g, respectively. Cinnamon had the lowest mean intake (0.04 g/portion) among urban and 0.2g/portion for gooseberry powder, 0.03g/portion for fenugreek seeds and dry pomegranate powder among rural women. A significant difference was obtained between urban and rural households for the intake of red chilli powder, cumin seeds, black pepper, fennel seeds, gooseberry powder and mustard seeds at p<0.01 level of significance. The percent of spice median intakes of spices representing below 1g were 72 and 89 % of urban and rural median intakes, respectively. Out of 18, 10 and 7 spices among urban and rural were having 90th percentile above 1g, respectively. The highest 90th percentile value was observed for red chilli powder (4.41g) among urban and turmeric powder (3.23g) among rural. Overall, an average adult woman consumed 10.04 g of spices per day as compared to 7.68 g per day for rural women indicating higher consumption of spices among urban households.
The distribution of the level of spice intake based on portion sizes is depicted in the Table 5. The total number of 1395 and 1107 portion sizes was obtained from the aggregate of all spices consumed from all dishes by adult women among urban and rural households, respectively in one day. Maximum number of portion sizes representing more than 8 % of total portion sizes belonged to red chilli powder (20.7 %), turmeric powder (17.4 %), cumin seeds (8.5 %), green cardamom (8.4 %) and black pepper (8.2 %) among urban women and red chilli powder (18.3 %), turmeric powder (19 %), cumin seeds (8.9 %) and black pepper (8 %) among rural women. Further, it showed that except for red chilli powder, turmeric powder, cumin seeds, fennel seeds, black pepper and black salt, the rest of the spices showed more than 50 % of the portion sizes consumed below 1 g among urban women. While among rural, except for red chilli powder, the rest of the spices showed more than 50 % of portion sizes consumed below 1 g. Percent of portion sizes consumed between 1-3g were highest for fennel seeds (70 %) followed by turmeric powder (66.7 %), cumin seeds (60.1 %) and red chilli powder (51.2 %) among urban intake. The corresponding highest value was observed for turmeric powder (65.5 %) portion sizes consumed between 1-3 g. Greater than 3 g, percent portion sizes were observed for red chilli powder (33.9 %), turmeric powder (16.9 %), black pepper (23.4 %) and fennel (3.70 %) among urban and red chilli powder (6.7 %) and turmeric powder (21.2 %) among rural, respectively.
Quantity of spice intake per portion size of spice consumed from individual dishes
The spice intake from individual dishes like dhal, vegetable and curry were evaluated given in the Table 6, Table 7 and Table 8, respectively. Dhal (legume preparation), vegetable (dry vegetables) and curry (preparations like rajmah, curry, black channa). Maximum number of portion sizes consumed were highest from dhal followed by vegetable and curry among rural households.
Mean intakes were highest for red chilli powder (1.88 g) from dhal among urban households and turmeric powder (1.04) from dhal among rural households elicited in Table 7. Common spices added to dhal were red chilli powder, turmeric powder, mustard seeds, carom seeds, cumin seeds, garam masala, black pepper and asafoetida among urban and rural households. Median intakes above 0.5 g were observed for red chilli powder and turmeric powder among urban households while red chilli powder, turmeric powder and mustard seeds among rural households. The significant difference was obtained for turmeric powder, mustard seeds, carom seeds, black pepper and garam masala intake among urban and rural households. While, red chilli powder, asafoetida, cumin seeds and dry mango powder showed a non-significant difference between both households. The highest 90th percentile intake level was observed for turmeric powder 1.66 and 2.71 from dhal among urban and rural households, respectively.
Data on the intake of spices from vegetables was depicted in Table 8. The number of portion sizes consumed from vegetables having more than 50 portion sizes were from red chilli powder, turmeric powder and cumin seeds among urban and rural households. Turmeric powder, red chilli powder, mustard seeds, carom seeds, asafoetida, cumin seeds and fenugreek seeds had shown a non-significant difference among the intake of the above-mentioned spices among urban and rural households. Turmeric powder had a median intake of 1.25 and 1.20 g in urban and rural households, respectively. The highest 90th percentile intake level from vegetables among urban and rural households was observed from turmeric powder 1.98 and 1.89 g, respectively.
Another routinely prepared dishes curry like rajmah, black channa, curry, etc, their spice intake has been presented in Table 9. Mean intake of turmeric powder from curry preparation was highest among urban (1.08 g) and rural (1.12 g) households. The non-significant difference was seen among all spices mentioned with exception of red chilli powder and garam masala, which showed a significant difference (p<0.05) among urban and rural households. Median values obtained above 0.60 g were observed by red chilli powder, turmeric powder, carom seeds, asafoetida, cumin seeds, coriander seeds, black pepper and garam masala among urban households while red chilli powder, turmeric powder, carom seeds, asafoetida and garam masala among rural households. The highest 90th percentile of 1.91 and 1.89 g for turmeric powder among urban and rural households, respectively.
Legumes and vegetables (Dhal, vegetables, curry) are considered as the main contributor of spices apart from other dishes in one day intake. A maximum number of portion sizes for red chilli powder and turmeric were from vegetables<dhal<curry preparation among urban households. While among rural households the maximum number of portion sizes were from dhal<vegetables< curry preparation for red chilli powder and turmeric powder