The use of fish-aggregating devices (FADs) and a dedicated social behaviour change (SBC) program, when combined, appear to have a synergistic impact on the consumption patterns of fish in Timor-Leste, particularly among women of reproductive age. Households exposed to both the FADs and SBC were two times more likely to have purchased fish in the previous week, and women from those households were four times as likely to have consumed fish in the previous 24 hours. Among the households that purchased fish, the quantity of fish purchased was similar across treatment households. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first RCT investigating a nutrition-sensitive fisheries intervention.
Globally, the potential of fish as a source of micronutrients is well documented (Béné et al. 2016; Mills et al. 2023b), but a significant portion of this potential remains unexploited by developing states due to prioritising exports to wealthier nations (Hicks et al. 2019). In regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, the benefits of fisheries are often restricted to those living in proximity to them (O’Meara et al. 2021). The challenge, therefore, extends beyond merely increasing production to ensuring equitable distribution, especially to regions that are historically impoverished and nutritionally deprived (Allegretti and Hicks 2023).
The fishing fleet of Timor-Leste is exclusively small-scale, with motorised and unmotorised canoes and small fibreglass skiffs (López-Angarita et al., 2019). Systemic challenges, such as poor road infrastructure and limited capacity for cold storage and distribution of fish in Timor-Leste also disincentivise large catches and drive the demand for small fish, which are easier to cool or dry quickly to preserve and transport (López-Angarita et al. 2019; Veillat et al. 2022), and are more attractive to consumers with limited budget. The limited production and supply of ice creates a reliance on powerful and highly mobile middle-traders (Steenbergen et al. 2019).
Also, small-scale fishing communities are marginalised and lacking basic infrastructures and capacity to safely store, handle and distribute fish safely and widely (RFLP 2013). Although almost no aquatic foods are exported from Timor-Leste, fish is an underused resource with the potential to improve dietary quality in the country (Mills et al. 2013, 2023a), and fisheries have been a focus of national development priorities to eliminate malnutrition since 2011 (GOTL 2011). However, the fishing fleet of Timor-Leste is exclusively small-scale working from unmotorised and motorised canoes and skiffs, accessing thin, fringing reefs (Veillat et al. 2022) and producing only one third of the national development target production per year at ~ 6,600 tonnes (Bonis-Profumo et al. 2023; Longobardi et al. 2024b).
Improving fish availability through better infrastructure and technology is a primary objective for many rural development initiatives aimed at improving small-scale fisheries (McClanahan et al. 2015), but for various reasons, these costly initiatives fall short in delivering anticipated outcomes (Gillett 2010). Local trade systems, based on social, cultural or economic characteristics, have been shown to persist autonomously (Steenbergen et al., 2019). FADs are a technology that complements these resilient local food systems. While controversial in industrial fisheries, FADs can act as a climate-sensitive solution, making fishing more efficient for food and nutrition security (Albert et al. 2014)and easing fishing pressure on coral reef populations by transferring 50–75% of fishing effort from reefs to FADs (Bell et al. 2015). By enabling fishers’ access to pelagic fish stocks without time- and fuel-consuming searching, they make fishing more efficient while increasing the CPUE (Davies et al. 2014).
The variability of effect seen in CPUE at FADs deployed in this study corroborate specific FAD studies that suggest a complex interplay of ecological and social factors influence the effect of FADs (Sharp 2011b; Bell et al. 2015; Tilley et al. 2019b), and highlight the importance of localized assessments when evaluating the efficacy of FADs. FADs can introduce new and complex social issues in communities, related to ownership, maintenance and access (Pittman et al. 2020), and sabotage by jealous or uninformed third parties is often reported. In Dili and Covalima, the reduced CPUE could highlight an important risk, where fishers transferring fishing effort to FADs from other fishing types, may end up catching less if they are not adequately equipped with the knowledge or gear required for fishing around a FAD.
4.1 Social and behaviour change
The SBC program, designed to promote the consumption of fish, also showed non-significant standalone effects, suggesting that awareness alone might not be sufficient to alter deeply ingrained dietary habits nor affordability and accessibility challenges. Consumer behaviour can be modified towards healthier food choices (Lowe et al., 2015) to include nutrient-rich foods in diets to bring about nutritional and health outcomes (Tapsell, 2017). But the varied methodologies and outcomes of SBC studies make them very difficult to synthesize learning from (Myers, 2016).
The clan-based (Lisan) culture of Timor-Leste, which often results in the consumption of animal-source foods during special occasions, such as ceremonies, poses another unique challenge. Livestock are also used as a savings mechanism, but animal disease is prevalent, and livestock often suffer from seasonal scarcity of water and/or feed, and the lack of veterinary services (Wong et al. 2018). The absence of such restrictions on fish and aquatic foods offers a silver lining, paving the way for interventions like the one discussed in this study. As fish is usually purchased in inland areas, attention to gender relations is paramount as men typically make the final decision on higher value items such as animal-source foods (Bonis-Profumo et al. 2022). Importantly, the SBC intervention targeted both men and women and included modules on family decision-making and the allocation of resources for protein acquisition.
The presence of established village savings and loans associations (VSLAs) as a criterion for village inclusion in the study may have dampened the standalone effect of SBC on fish consumption by only engaging communities that were already exposed to other information related to savings, business, credit etc. However, in asking respondents about other active development projects in their villages during the baseline and endline surveys, we controlled for the influence of other projects on the tested effect. The lack of spillover effects of SBC in control villages underscores the localized impact of the intervention, and therein highlights the challenges of access, transportation infrastructure and terrain in Timor-Leste for scaling outcomes through social and commercial networks.
The impact observed in the combined FADs + SBC group could be attributed to the simultaneous enhancement of supply (through FADs) and demand (through SBC). This highlights the importance of a two-pronged approach, addressing both the supply chain challenges and dietary practices, in achieving meaningful change. The results corroborate with the overarching sentiment in global research, suggesting that while increasing production is crucial, equally vital are interventions that address the broader food system and policy changes, creating an environment conducive for behavioural change. Evidence shows that nutrition-sensitive agriculture programs, often focused on increasing production and agricultural income (Ruel et al. 2018), are more effective at improving household as well as maternal and child dietary indicators when these integrate nutrition SBC and women’s empowerment components (Ruel et al. 2018; Sharma et al. 2021; Margolies et al. 2022). Our study shows that this might be also the case in nutrition-sensitive fisheries interventions.
Animal-source foods benefit child growth and cognitive development (Neumann et al. 2007; Allen and Dror 2011; Iannotti 2018). Guizzo Dri et al., (2022) suggest that more animal-source foods, especially in the rainy season (when crops availability is limited), could improve children’s growth in rural Timor-Leste. Long Tom (Tylosurus spp.), flying fish (Cypselurus sp.), garfish (Hemiramphus sp.) and sardines (Sardinella spp. and Amblygaster spp.) are seasonally abundant marine pelagic fish (Hunnam et al. 2021a), with peaks in catch occurring mostly during the rainy season, (from November to March). Sardines gifted by fishers to children at landing sites, and household gleaning activities conducted predominantly by women and children, already represent a critical source of nutrients for coastal households in Timor-Leste (Tilley et al. 2021). Research is currently underway testing strategies to preserve seasonally abundant fish in different ways, such as fish powder and bottled sardines (Eriksson et al. 2021; Hunnam et al. 2021b), and how these might be integrated into school feeding programs (Bonis-Profumo et al. 2023).
4.2 Limitations
The dietary data on fish consumption is based on recall and self-reporting in household surveys, and therefore risks response bias. It is expected that response bias would favour over-reporting of consumption, which may suggest lower effectiveness of the interventions. Sharing of foods with family members would likely be under-reported, again leading to underestimation of effectiveness.
While gender and power dynamics are recognised as important influencers of dietary choice and diversity, the intersection of these factors with increased supply and knowledge of nutrition benefits of fish was not explored in this study. However, VSLAs are composed of both men and women members and SBC activities involved all members and encouraged collaborative food purchasing decision-making.
As a highly perishable product, the quality of fish reaching consumers may have differed between upland sites due to factors such as temperature, storage conditions, and travel time (in turn affected by multiple factors). These differences may affect consumer dietary preference. However, as these factors were unlikely to change between baseline and end line, it was considered insignificant.
In conclusion, while the evidence for FADs increasing fish catch rates in general cannot be disputed, their effectiveness in transforming dietary habits is contingent upon complementary interventions that address the broader socio-cultural and economic landscape. To achieve national nutrition targets in Timor-Leste, increasing fish production volumes will not be sufficient. There is a need to explore pathways to expand the reach of fish and aquatic foods as a vital source of micronutrients and protein. This study underscores the importance of an interdisciplinary approach when developing policies, which may need to combine technological innovations with socio-behavioural interventions.